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Deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) is a biomarker which has important applications in various biological processes. Thus, it is highly important to develop a user-friendly method for the detection of DNase I. Here, we present a paper-based distance sensor for the rapid detection of DNase I based on changes in the viscosity of DNA mucus. The viscosity of DNA mucus varies with different concentrations of DNase I, showing different water flow lengths on the pH test papers, this makes the quantification of DNase I possible. This method has a wide linear range (0.01-10 U/mL), excellent sensitivity, remarkable specificity and excellent reproducibility. The detection limit reaches 0.003 U/mL. Additionally, it can be well applied to detection of DNase I inhibitors, assay of DNase I in human serum and quality evaluation of nucleic acid scavengers. In general, this study offers a brief, convenient, label-free, and economical method to construct paper-based distance sensors using DNA mucus, which is very promising in the detection of DNase I in various applications., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The highly contagious nature and 100% fatality rate contribute to the ongoing and expanding impact of the African swine fever virus (ASFV), causing significant economic losses worldwide. Herein, we developed a cascaded colorimetric detection using the combination of a CRISPR/Cas14a system, G-quadruplex DNAzyme, and microfluidic paper-based analytical device. This CRISPR/Cas14a-G4 biosensor could detect ASFV as low as 5 copies/μL and differentiate the wild-type and mutated ASFV DNA with 2-nt difference. Moreover, this approach was employed to detect ASFV in porcine plasma. A broad linear detection range was observed, and the limit of detection in spiked porcine plasma was calculated to be as low as 42-85 copies/μL. Our results indicate that the developed paper platform exhibits the advantages of high sensitivity, excellent specificity, and low cost, making it promising for clinical applications in the field of DNA disease detection and suitable for popularization in low-resourced areas.

Accurate quantification of disease-signature microRNAs (miRNAs) in biomedical samples is in high demand for clinical diagnosis but still challenging because of the low abundance of miRNAs and complicating interferences in the milieus. Here, we report a multi-amplification strategy based on paper-spray mass spectrometry (PS MS) for the analysis of miRNAs in blood. A toehold-mediated DNA-strand-displacement reaction (TSD) is employed to amplify the signal chain and to ensure the specificity. The signal chain is then cleaved by UV light to release signal molecules for detection. Moreover, the paper spray method can efficiently filter out interfering substances in the blood and further enhance the sensitivity of detection. This concept is successfully demonstrated in the prototypical detection of the cancer biomarker miRNA-141 in blood and serum. The proposed TSD-PS MS approach provides an efficient method for the sensitive detection of oligonucleotides at low concentration in complicated milieus., (© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

The paper-folding mechanism has been widely adopted in building of reconfigurable macroscale systems because of its unique capabilities and advantages in programming variable shapes and stiffness into a structure 1-5 . However, it has barely been exploited in the construction of molecular-level systems owing to the lack of a suitable design principle, even though various dynamic structures based on DNA self-assembly 6-9 have been developed 10-23 . Here we propose a method to harness the paper-folding mechanism to create reconfigurable DNA origami structures. The main idea is to build a reference, planar wireframe structure 24 whose edges follow a crease pattern in paper folding so that it can be folded into various target shapes. We realized several paper-like folding and unfolding patterns using DNA strand displacement 25 with high yield. Orthogonal folding, repeatable folding and unfolding, folding-based microRNA detection and fluorescence signal control were demonstrated. Stimuli-responsive folding and unfolding triggered by pH or light-source change were also possible. Moreover, by employing hierarchical assembly 26 we could expand the design space and complexity of the paper-folding mechanism in a highly programmable manner. Because of its high programmability and scalability, we expect that the proposed paper-folding-based reconfiguration method will advance the development of complex molecular systems., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.)

Detection and characterization of DNA damage plays a critical role in genotoxicity testing, drug screening, and environmental health. We developed a fully integrated origami paper-based analytical device (oPAD) for measuring DNA damage. This simple device allows on-paper cell lysis, DNA extraction, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) reaction and signal readout with simple operation steps, enabling rapid (within 30 min) and high throughput assessment of multiple DNA damages induced by exogenous chemical agents.

Point-of-care (POC) detection is crucial in clinical diagnosis in order to provide timely and specific treatment. Combining polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer, p-phenylene diisothiocyanate (PDITC) and superparamagnetic beads, a novel method to activate the surface of filter paper to bind DNA molecules has been developed. The method is based on the primary amination of the filter paper surface with PAMAM dendrimer, followed by generation of isothiocyanate groups via PDITC, and subsequent repetition of these two steps. Different parameters of the process have been optimized, including probe printing, preparation of target DNAs and detection. The result shows that, due to the highly porous structure of filter paper, high amounts of printed probes, target DNAs and magnetic beads can provide high signal intensities in the detection area via probe/target duplex formation. This method is suitable for rapid, specific and cost-efficient DNA detection on cellulose filter paper. It can be used as a POC device, in particular for diagnosis and treatment management of infectious diseases and identification of antimicrobial drug resistance genes., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In this study, a simple paper-based aptasensor has been developed for the ultrasensitive detection of lead (Pb 2+ ) ion within about 10 min. The aptasensor has been successfully designed by taking advantages of the Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) process and the super fluorescence quenching property of graphene oxide (GO) sheet. The sensing mechanism of the aptasensor is based on the conformational switch of the Pb 2+ -specific aptamer from a random coil to a G-quadruplex structure. An injection of Pb 2+ on the paper-based platform induces the release of the specific aptamer from the GO surface that recovers the fluorescence emission. Under the optimal experimental conditions, there is a good linear relationship between the fluorescence recovery and the Pb 2+ concentration in the ranges of 5-70 pM and 0.07-20 nM. Moreover, the aptasensing array exhibits a high sensitivity to Pb 2+ with an ultra-low detection limit of 0.5 pM. The developed aptasensor has been successfully applied to determine Pb 2+ in tap water, lake water, milk, and human blood serum. The paper-based aptasensor can be efficiently utilized to detect other metal ions and biological molecules by substituting target specific aptamer., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A paper-based DNA biosensor was developed for food authenticity testing using dairy products as a model. DNA from milk-based samples was isolated, and species-specific DNA sequences were amplified and identified by the biosensor using specific DNA probes. The properties of gold nanoparticles were exploited for visual detection. The biosensor was applied for detection of three species, namely cow, sheep and goat, while as low as 1.6 fmol for cow and goat, and 3.1 fmol for sheep PCR product were detected. Moreover, adulteration down to 0.01% could be detected, based on binary mixtures of cows', ewes' and goats' milk yogurt, containing 0.01 to 5% of cows' yogurt in ewes' and goats' yogurts, respectively. The proposed paper-based DNA biosensor offered 10 times higher detectability than other methods, good specificity and reproducibility, and could be applied easily for the detection of other adulterated food products, such as meat, olive oil and legumes., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A paper-based electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor characterized by the signal amplification of reticular DNA-functionalized PtCu nanoframes (DNA-PtCuTNFs) and analyte-triggered DNA walker was developed for sensitive streptavidin assay. Silver microflower functionalized paper-based sensing platform was prepared to fix the hairpin strand (S1). With addition of the streptavidin, plenty of DNA walkers consisting of the walking strands (S2) labeled with biotin and streptavidin were established, which protected S2 from digestion via the terminal protection mechanism. The sequential introduction of the DNA walker and capture probe initiated the hairpin structure opening of S1 and strand displacement reaction (SDR) happening, causing the S2 release. Subsequently, S1 hybridized with S3. The free S2 further hybridized with adjacent S1 to trigger the next cycle. After multiple cycles, the DNA-PtCuTNFs, the fire-new signal enhancer, with remarkable peroxidase activity, were successfully attached onto the paper electrode via metal-catalyst-free click chemistry. Based on the SDR of the DNA walker and the catalysis of DNA-PtCuTNFs, a significantly boosted ECL signal of luminol was obtained. Under the optimal conditions, the developed sensor for streptavidin assay exhibited a low detection limit of 33.4 fM with a linear range from 0.1 pM to 0.1 μM. Graphical abstract.

Glass slides have been widely used for DNA immobilization in DNA microarray and numerous bioassays for decades, whereas they are faced with limitations of low probe density, time-consuming modification steps, and expensive instruments. In this work, a simple one-step surface modification method using 3-aminopropyl trimethoxysilane (APTMS) has been developed and applied to graft DNA codes on paper. Higher DNA immobilization efficiency was obtained in comparison with that in a conventional method using glass slides. Fluorescence detection, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), infrared spectra (FT-IR), and pH influence studies were employed to characterize the surface modification and subsequent DNA immobilization, which further reveals a mechanism in which this method lies in ionic interactions between the positively charged APTMS-modified paper surface and negatively charged DNA probes. Furthermore, an APTMS-modified paper-based device has been developed to demonstrate application in low-cost detection of a foodborne pathogen, Giardia lamblia , with high sensitivity (the detection limit of 22 nM) and high specificity. Compared with conventional methods using redundant cross-linking reactions, our method is simpler, faster, versatile, and lower-cost, enabling broad applications of paper-based bioassays especially for point-of-care detection in resource-poor settings.

The demand for high-quality graphene for electronic applications is increasing due to its high carrier mobility and electrical conductivity. In this connection, printing technology is a reliable method towards the fabrication of conductive, disposable graphene-based electrode for low-cost sensor application. Herein, we aimed to report the synthesis of high-quality graphene nanosheets obtained by electrochemical exfoliation of biomass-derived from corn cob. The conductive ink was prepared from this exfoliated graphene and was utilized for the preparation of paper-based graphene electrode towards double stranded DNA (dsDNA) sensor application. This paper, based graphene electrode opens the possibility of direct electrochemical analysis of analyte without any sample preparation. In this study, two irreversible oxide peaks were obtained from paper-based printed graphene electrode, corresponds to oxidation of guanine (G) and adenine (A) of dsDNA in the linear range of 0.2 pg mL -1 to 5 pg mL -1 with the detection limit of 0.68 pg mL -1 and the sensitivity of 0.00656 mA pg -1 cm -2 . Further, a small-scale printable circuit is fabricated using this graphene shows good conductivity of 1.145x10 3 (S/m)., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Fingermarks and DNA are valuable traces in forensic investigations potentially allowing for the identification of the source of the trace or highlighting a link between a touched object and an individual. These traces are often latent and need to be detected before recovery. While a number of validated methods exist for fingermark detection, no routine method is in place for the detection of DNA. This study investigates the use of pdimethylaminobenzaldehyde (DMAB) in conjunction with indanedione zinc (IND-Zn) for the detection of latent cellular material and fingermarks on paper. The aim of this proof-of-concept study is to determine the successfulness of this reagent (DMAB-IND) in the detection of the respective traces and observe the impact it has on the resulting DNA profile. It was found that latent fingermarks and the associated cells could be visualised following treatment with the reagent. Samples treated with DMAB-IND showed a significantly higher percentage of alleles called compared to IND-Zn-treated and untreated samples due to the targeted recovery of cells. However, the reagent appears to degrade DNA at a rapid rate, requiring the treated samples to be processed for DNA on the day of treatment., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Despite the recent developments on the construction of point-of-care testing (POCT) devices, it is still a big challenge to build portable POCT tools for simple, sensitive, selective, and quantitative determination of disease-related biomarkers. With this in mind, we developed a simple and user-friendly POCT tool for onsite analysis of DNA adenine methyltransferase (Dam) activity by using DNA tetrahedra-based hydrogel to trap glucose-producing enzymes for target recognition and signal transduction. The enzyme-encapsulated DNA hydrogel and the substrate of enzyme were separately modified on papers and then combined onto a commercial glucose test strip for the sensitive evaluation of Dam activity via using a personal glucose meter (PGM) for quantitative signal readout. Taking advantage of the great amount of enzyme entrapped in DNA hydrogel and the high signal amplification ability of enzyme, this POCT tool is capable of highly sensitive and selective determination of Dam activity with a direct detection limit down to 0.001 U/mL, which is superior to that of most previously reported biosensors. Furthermore, this device can also be applied to screen inhibitor and analyze Dam activity in spiked serum samples, indicating the great potential for clinical practice and diagnostic applications. Additionally, all the reactions for Dam assay are performed on paper, which is simple and deliverable to end-users for medical diagnostics at home or in-field.

The detection of double stranded DNA (dsDNA) is often associated with the use of laboratory-bound approaches and/or with the prior generation of single stranded DNA (ssDNA), making these methods not suitable for in situ monitoring, i.e., point-of-care diagnostics. Screen-printed technology, coupled to the use of triplex forming oligonucleotides (TFO) as the recognizing probes, offers a great possibility toward the development of portable analytical tools. Moreover, the continuous demand for sustainable processes and waste lowering have highlighted the role of paper-based substrates for manufacturing easy-to-use, low-cost, and sustainable electrochemical devices. In this work, filter paper and copy paper have been utilized to produce E-DNA strips. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been exploited to immobilize the methylene blue (MB)-tagged TFO and to enhance the charge transfer kinetics at the electrode surface. Both paper-based substrates have been electrochemically characterized, and in addition, the effect of the amount of waxed layers has been evaluated. The paper-based E-DNA strips have been challenged toward the detection of three model targets, obtaining 3 and 7 nM as the detection limit, respectively, for single and double stranded sequences. The repeatability of the manufacturing (homemade) process has been evaluated with a relative standard deviation of approximately 10%. The effectiveness of the filter paper-based platform has been also evaluated in undiluted serum obtaining a similar value of the detection limit (compared to the measurements carried out in buffer solution). In addition, a synthetic PCR amplified dsDNA sequence, related to HIV, has been detected in serum samples.

Micrometer-sized functional nucleic acid (FNA) superstructures (denoted as 3D DNA) were examined as a unique class of biorecognition elements to produce highly functional bioactive paper surfaces. 3D DNA containing repeating sequences of either a DNA aptamer or DNAzyme was created from long-chain products of rolling circle amplification followed by salt aging. The resulting 3D DNA retained its original spherical shape upon inkjet printing and adhered strongly to the paper surface via physisorption. 3D DNA paper sensors showed resistance to degradation by nucleases, suppressed nonspecific protein adsorption, and provided a much higher surface density of functional DNA relative to monomeric FNAs, making such species ideally suited for development of paper-based biosensors., (© 2018 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

In paper-based microfluidics, the simplest devices are colorimetric, giving qualitative results. However, getting quantitative data can be quite a bit more difficult. Distance-based devices provide a user-friendly means of obtaining quantitative data without the need for any additional equipment, simply by using an included ruler or calibrated markings. This article details the development of a quantitative DNA detection device that utilizes the aggregation of polystyrene microspheres to affect the distance that microspheres wick through filter paper. The microspheres are conjugated to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) oligomers that are partially complementary to a target strand and, in the presence of the target strand, form a three-strand complex, resulting in the formation of aggregates. The higher the concentration of the target strand, the larger the aggregate, and the shorter the distance wicked by the microspheres. This behavior was investigated across a wide range of target concentrations and under different incubation times to understand aggregate formation. The device was then used to successfully detect a target strand spiked in extracted plant DNA.

A rapid and low-cost method of diagnosis is becoming important for detecting fetal inherited diseases, including single-gene disorders and chromosomal abnormalities. Here, we demonstrated an innovation that use paper-dried cord blood (PCB) as the starting material for PCR and whole genome amplification without any DNA extraction step at a very low cost. A novel PCR buffer named "DDB buffer" containing ammonium sulfate and glycerol were used instead of the conventional 10× PCR buffer. The amplicons were directly analyzed through microchip electrophoresis and whole genome sequencing. Inhibitory substances in filter paper were effectively inactivated using DDB buffer. Direct PCR amplification of DNA fragments ranging from 100 to 900 bp using filter paper spotted with 0.5 to 5 μL of cord blood and various anticoagulants was successful. We were able to determine fetal single-gene disorders and chromosomal diseases in all 46 chromosomes using PCB samples successfully. Compared with prenatal diagnosis using purified DNA, the proposed method is simple, fast, less prone to cross-contamination at minimal cost. Researchers and clinical and healthcare workers may employ this method for genetic diagnosis using cord blood samples with minimum laboratory resources. This method is very promising for a variety of genetic diagnosis applications in underserved communities at the point of need in developing areas. Graphical abstract.

Investigations of many crimes such as robberies, kidnappings, and terrorism are often associated with the recovery of a paper document which has been written by the perpetrator. Paper can provide a variety of forensic evidence such as DNA, latent fingermarks, and indented writing. The focus of this study was DNA recovery from handwritten notes through a vacuum suction device while preserving the other evidence types and the integrity of the document. Copy paper was used to create handwritten documents and sheets with deliberate fingerprints, and indentations. The homemade vacuum device consists of a glass pipette blocked with a moistened swab and attached to a vacuum source. The method collected sufficient DNA amounts for DNA typing analysis with 80% of the 11 copy paper samples tested giving probative DNA profiles with five being eligible for DNA database entry. DNA recovery was also tested on other commonly encountered paper types. DNA quantities would have been sufficient for STR typing for approximately 50% of manila envelopes and notebook paper samples, but not for magazine pages and bank deposit slips. Deliberate sebaceous and eccrine latent fingermarks placed onto copy paper and developed with magnetic fingerprint developer or 1,2 indanedione were not affected by the vacuum swabbing technique. Simulated robbery notes with indented writing and processed using an Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA) demonstrated no interference through the DNA collection. This vacuum-based collection method enables laboratories to reverse the current questioned document workflow and start with DNA collection., (© 2021 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.)

The use of paper-based methods for clinical diagnostics is a rapidly expanding research topic attracting a great deal of interest. Some groups have attempted to realize an integrated nucleic acid test on a single microfluidic paper chip, including extraction, amplification, and readout functions. However, these studies were not able to overcome complex modification and fabrication requirements, long turn-around times, or the need for sophisticated equipment like pumps, thermal cyclers, or centrifuges. Here, we report an extremely simple paper-based test for the point-of-care diagnosis of rotavirus A, one of the most common pathogens that causes pediatric gastroenteritis. This paper-based test could perform nucleic acid extraction within 5 min, then took 25 min to amplify the target sequence, and the result was visible to the naked eye immediately afterward or quantitative by the UV-Vis absorbance. This low-cost method does not require extra equipment and is easy to use either in a lab or at the point-of-care. The detection limit for rotavirus A was found to be 1 × 10 3 copies/mL. In addition, 100% sensitivity and specificity were achieved when testing 48 clinical stool samples. In conclusion, the present paper-based test fulfills the main requirements for a point-of-care diagnostic tool, and has the potential to be applied to disease prevention, control, and precision diagnosis., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Nucleic acid detection is of paramount importance in monitoring of microbial pathogens in food safety and infectious disease diagnostic applications. To address these challenges, a rapid, cost-effective label-free technique for nucleic acid detection with minimal instrumentations is highly desired. Here, we present paper microchip to detect and quantify nucleic acid using colorimetric sensing modality. The extracted DNA from food samples of meat as well as microbial pathogens was amplified utilizing loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). LAMP amplicon was then detected and quantified on a paper microchip fabricated in a cellulose paper and a small wax chamber utilizing crystal violet dye. The affinity of crystal violet dye toward dsDNA and positive signal were identified by changing the color from colorless to purple. Using this method, detection of Sus scrofa (porcine) and Bacillus subtilis (bacteria) DNA was possible at concentrations as low as 1 pg/μL (3.43 × 10 -1 copies/μL) and 10 pg/μL (2.2 × 10 3 copies/μL), respectively. This strategy can be adapted for detection of other DNA samples, with potential for development of a new breed of simple and inexpensive paper microchip at the point-of-need.

We present a novel microfluidic paper-based analytical device (μPAD) which utilizes the native high electroosmotic flow (EOF) in nitrocellulose to achieve stationary isotachophoresis (ITP) focusing. This approach decouples sample accumulation from the length of the channel, resulting in significant focusing over short channel lengths. We provide a brief theory for EOF-balanced ITP focusing under continuous injection from a depleting reservoir and present the design of a short (7 mm) paper-based microfluidic channel, which allows a 200 μL sample to be processed in approximately 6 min, resulting in a 20 000-fold increase in concentration - a full order of magnitude improvement compared to previous paper-based ITP devices. We show the stability of the assay over longer (40 min) durations of time, and using Morpholino probes, we present the applicability of the device for amplification-free detection of nucleic acids, with a limit-of-detection (LoD) of 5 pM in 10 min. Finally, we utilize the small footprint of the channel and show a multiplexed platform in which 12 assays operate in parallel in a 24-well plate format.

This work reports a microfabricated electrochemical paper-based analytical device (ePAD) for the voltammetric determination of DNA. The device is patterned by wax-printing on paper and features a circular assay zone connected to an inlet zone and a sink via grooved microfluidic channels for accelerated flow rate. An electrochemical cell with integrated electrodes is formed on the reverse side of the paper by sputtering of thin metal films (Sn, Pt and Ag as the working, counter and reference electrode, respectively). Proof-of-principle of the ePAD for biosensing is demonstrated for a DNA assay involving attachment of capture DNA, hybridization with biotinylated target oligonucleotide and labeling with streptavidin-conjugated CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (QDs). After the acidic dissolution of the QDs, the released Cd(II) is quantified by anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) at the Sn-film working electrode. Thanks to the synergistic effects of QDs amplification, the inherent sensitivity of ASV and the excellent detection capabilities of the Sn-film working electrode for Cd(II), the target DNA can be detected at levels as low as 0.11 pmol L -1 using sample volumes as low as 1 μL. The developed microfluidic ePAD costs only 0.11$ and presents favorable fabrication and operational features that make it an excellent candidate biosensor for simple and ultrasensitive point-of-need testing.

Abstract Traditional papermaking was a significant innovation that intrigued the information-sharing society in a wide range of the globe. The importance of finding the historical background hidden behind the historical traditional paper is critical to understanding societies in history. Advanced molecular biological research is applied to many forensic studies to identify the origin and criminal events. Yet, biological research refrained from the heritage science of traditional papers due to its damage to the samples. The current study explores the Pearson correlation between DNA in traditional paper and non-destructive measurement of characteristics of traditional paper. DNA concentration and purity were found to have a proportional relationship based on the CIEL*a*b* color system. The color of the traditional paper was assessed assessment shows green and yellow rather than red and blue. The DNA concentration demonstrated a positive linear correlation with the peaks of 992 cm−1, 1599 cm−1, and 1628 to 1638 cm−1 region, which were lignin-specific functional groups. The presence of lignin in traditional paper defines the colors green and yellow, which is related to the presence of a cell wall. The quantity of cell walls present is linked to DNA survival during the traditional papermaking process. Furthermore, the partial least square (PLS) regression model is established. The prediction model based on DNA, paper properties, and smoothing + the second derivative preprocessed attenuated total reflection-Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectral data demonstrated valid purity predictions. The evaluation parameter of the cross-validated prediction model contains a low Root Mean Square Error of Cross-Validation (RMSECV) of 0.091 for DNA purity. The determination coefficient was close to 1. However, the further establishment of a validated DNA extraction methodology is required for the consistency of the prediction model for DNA concentration. The hierarchical clustering analysis demonstrated the agglomerative dendrogram on traditional paper samples. For the dendrogram, the Nasu paper mulberry (originating in northern Japan) was distinguished from another paper mulberry (originating in southwestern Japan) by clustering. By multivariate statistical analysis, the DNA presence and quality were predictable from the Japanese traditional papers. In addition, the clustering analysis provided the possible origin of paper mulberry materials for traditional papers. Based on the preliminary information, the need for DNA analysis on historical traditional paper can be determined.

Tape lifting and FTA paper scraping methods were directly compared to traditional double swabbing for collecting touch DNA from car steering wheels (n = 70 cars). Touch DNA was collected from the left or right side of each steering wheel (randomized) using two sterile cotton swabs, while the other side was sampled using water-soluble tape or FTA paper cards. DNA was extracted and quantified in duplicate using qPCR. Quantifiable amounts of DNA were detected for 100% of the samples (n = 140) collected independent of the method. However, the DNA collection yield was dependent on the collection method. A statistically significant difference in DNA yield was observed between FTA scraping and double swabbing methods (p = 0.0051), with FTA paper collecting a two-fold higher amount. Statistical analysis showed no significant difference in DNA yields between the double swabbing and tape lifting techniques (p = 0.21). Based on the DNA concentration required for 1 ng input, 47% of the samples collected using FTA paper would be expected to yield a short tandem repeat (STR) profile compared to 30% and 23% using double swabbing or tape, respectively. Further, 55% and 77% of the samples collected using double swabbing or tape, respectively, did not yield a high enough DNA concentration for the 0.5 ng of DNA input recommended for conventional STR kits and would be expected to result in a partial or no profile compared to 35% of the samples collected using FTA paper. STR analysis was conducted for a subset of the higher concentrated samples to confirm that the DNA collected from the steering wheel was from the driver. 32 samples were selected with DNA amounts of at least 1 ng total DNA (100 pg/μl when concentrated if required). A mixed STR profile was observed for 26 samples (88%) and the last driver was the major DNA contributor for 29 samples (94%). For one sample, the last driver was the minor DNA contributor. A full STR profile of the last driver was observed for 21 samples (69%) and a partial profile was observed for nine samples (25%); STR analysis failed for two samples collected using tape (6%). In conclusion, we show that the FTA paper scraping method has the potential to collect higher DNA yields from touch DNA evidence deposited on non-porous surfaces often encountered in criminal cases compared to conventional methods., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and Faculty of Forensic and Legal Medicine. All rights reserved.)

Point-of-care Nucleic acid testing (POCNAT) has become an attractive technique for DNA identification in resource-limited settings, offering a rapid system for urgent clinical applications. In this study, a chemiluminescence-based lateral flow biosensor (CL-LFB) was developed for the quantitative analysis of DNA, without labeling and amplification. The developed biosensor employs a two-step hybridization, a primary hybridization of 5'-biotinylated detector probe to the target DNA and a secondary hybridization of the resulting complex with the immobilized capture probe. Quantitative analysis of DNA was provided via HRP-catalyzed reaction with the chemiluminescense substrate followed by imaging with a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) digital camera. The assay performance was investigated using a synthetic target, 16S rRNA gene (775 bp) and the whole genome derived from Escherichia coli (E.coli). A detection limit of 1.5 pM for the synthetic target and 0.4 ng/ml for 16S rRNA gene was obtained. In spite of LFBs limitations for the detection of large DNA fragments, the proposed assay provided a low-cost, fast, and sensitive tool for PCR-free diagnosis of small and larger fragments of nucleic acids.

The development of simple fluorescent and colorimetric assays that enable point-of-care DNA and RNA detection has been a topic of significant research because of the utility of such assays in resource limited settings. The most common motifs utilize hybridization to a complementary detection strand coupled with a sensitive reporter molecule. Here, a paper-based colorimetric assay for DNA detection based on pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acid (acpcPNA)-induced nanoparticle aggregation is reported as an alternative to traditional colorimetric approaches. PNA probes are an attractive alternative to DNA and RNA probes because they are chemically and biologically stable, easily synthesized, and hybridize efficiently with the complementary DNA strands. The acpcPNA probe contains a single positive charge from the lysine at C-terminus and causes aggregation of citrate anion-stabilized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in the absence of complementary DNA. In the presence of target DNA, formation of the anionic DNA-acpcPNA duplex results in dispersion of the AgNPs as a result of electrostatic repulsion, giving rise to a detectable color change. Factors affecting the sensitivity and selectivity of this assay were investigated, including ionic strength, AgNP concentration, PNA concentration, and DNA strand mismatches. The method was used for screening of synthetic Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), and human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA based on a colorimetric paper-based analytical device developed using the aforementioned principle. The oligonucleotide targets were detected by measuring the color change of AgNPs, giving detection limits of 1.53 (MERS-CoV), 1.27 (MTB), and 1.03 nM (HPV). The acpcPNA probe exhibited high selectivity for the complementary oligonucleotides over single-base-mismatch, two-base-mismatch, and noncomplementary DNA targets. The proposed paper-based colorimetric DNA sensor has potential to be an alternative approach for simple, rapid, sensitive, and selective DNA detection.

Plastic microfluidic devices with embedded chitosan-modified Fusion 5 filter paper (unmodified one purchased from GE Healthcare) have been successfully developed for DNA extraction and concentration, utilizing two different mechanisms for DNA capture: the physical entanglement of long-chain DNA molecules with the fiber matrix of the filter paper and the electrostatic adsorption of DNA to the chitosan-modified filter fibers. This new method not only provided a high DNA extraction efficiency at a pH of 5 by synergistically combining these two capture mechanisms together, but also resisted the elution of DNA from filters at a pH > 8 due to the entanglement of DNA with fibers. As a result, PCR buffers can be directly loaded into the extraction chamber for "in situ PCR", in which the captured DNA were used for downstream analysis without any loss. We demonstrated that the capture efficiencies of a 3-mm-diameter filter disc in a microchip were 98% and 95% for K562 human genomic DNA and bacteriophage λ-DNA, respectively. The washes with DI water, PCR mixture, and TE buffer cannot elute the captured DNA. In addition, the filter disc can enrich 62% of λ-DNA from a diluted sample (0.05 ng/μL), providing a concentration factor more than 30-fold. Finally, a microdevice with a simple two-chamber structure was developed for on-chip cell lysis, DNA extraction, and 15-plex short tandem repeat amplification from blood. This DNA extraction coupled with "in situ PCR" has great potential to be utilized in fully integrated microsystems for rapid, near-patient nucleic acid testing.

Sensitive, specific, rapid, inexpensive and easy-to-use nucleic acid tests for use at the point-of-need are critical for the emerging field of personalised medicine for which companion diagnostics are essential, as well as for application in low resource settings. Here we report on the development of a point-of-care nucleic acid lateral flow test for the direct detection of isothermally amplified DNA. The recombinase polymerase amplification method is modified slightly to use tailed primers, resulting in an amplicon with a duplex flanked by two single stranded DNA tails. This tailed amplicon facilitates detection via hybridisation to a surface immobilised oligonucleotide capture probe and a gold nanoparticle labelled reporter probe. A detection limit of 1 × 10 -11  M (190 amol), equivalent to 8.67 × 10 5 copies of DNA was achieved, with the entire assay, both amplification and detection, being completed in less than 15 minutes at a constant temperature of 37 °C. The use of the tailed primers obviates the need for hapten labelling and consequent use of capture and reporter antibodies, whilst also avoiding the need for any post-amplification processing for the generation of single stranded DNA, thus presenting an assay that can facilely find application at the point of need.

In this work, a paper device consisted of a patterned paper chip, wicking pads, and a base was fabricated. On the paper chip, DNA-gold nanoparticles (DNA-AuNPs) were deposited and Hg 2+ ions could be adsorbed by the DNA-AuNPs. The formed DNA-AuNP/Hg 2+ nanozyme could catalyze the tetramethylbenzidine (TMB)-H 2 O 2 chromogenic reaction. Due to the wicking pads, a larger volume of Hg 2+ sample could be applied to the paper device for Hg 2+ detection and therefore the color response could be enhanced. The paper device achieved a cut-off value of 50 nM by the naked eye for Hg 2+ under optimized conditions. Moreover, quantitative measurements could be implemented by using a desktop scanner and extracting grayscale values. A linear range of 50-2000 nM Hg 2+ was obtained with a detection limit of 10 nM. In addition, the paper device could be applied in the detection of environmental water samples with high recoveries ranging from 85.7% to 105.6%. The paper-device-based colorimetric detection was low-cost, simple, and demonstrated high potential in real-sample applications.

We report on a paper device capable of carrying out target-induced rolling circle amplification (RCA) to produce massive DNA amplicons that can be easily visualized. Interestingly, we observed that RCA was more proficient on paper than in solution, which we attribute to a significantly higher localized concentration of immobilized DNA. Furthermore, we have successfully engineered a fully functional paper device for sensitive DNA or microRNA detection via printing of all RCA-enabling molecules within a polymeric sugar film formed from pullulan, which was integrated with the paper device. This encapsulation not only stabilizes the entrapped reagents at room temperature but also enables colorimetric bioassays with minimal steps., (© 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

This paper addresses a growing need in clinical diagnostics for parallel, multiplex analysis of biomarkers from small biological samples. It describes a new procedure for assembling arrays of ssDNA and proteins on paper. This method starts with the synthesis of DNA oligonucleotides covalently linked to paper and proceeds to assemble microzones of DNA-conjugated paper into arrays capable of simultaneously capturing DNA, DNA-conjugated protein antigens, and DNA-conjugated antibodies. The synthesis of ssDNA oligonucleotides on paper is convenient and effective with 32% of the oligonucleotides cleaved and eluted from the paper substrate being full-length by HPLC for a 32-mer. These ssDNA arrays can be used to detect fluorophore-linked DNA oligonucleotides in solution, and as the basis for DNA-directed assembly of arrays of DNA-conjugated capture antibodies on paper, detect protein antigens by sandwich ELISAs. Paper-anchored ssDNA arrays with different sequences can be used to assemble paper-based devices capable of detecting DNA and antibodies in the same device and enable simple microfluidic paper-based devices.

DNA analysis is essential for diagnosis and monitoring of many diseases. Conventional DNA testing is generally limited to the laboratory. Increasing access to relevant technologies can improve patient care and outcomes in both developed and developing regions. Here, we demonstrate direct DNA analysis in paper-based devices, uniquely enabled by ion concentration polarization at the interface of patterned nanoporous membranes in paper (paper-based ICP). Hepatitis B virus DNA targets in human serum are simultaneously preconcentrated, separated, and detected in a single 10 min operation. A limit of detection of 150 copies/mL is achieved without prior viral load amplification, sufficient for early diagnosis of hepatitis B. We clinically assess the DNA integrity of sperm cells in raw human semen samples. The percent DNA fragmentation results from the paper-based ICP devices strongly correlate (R(2) = 0.98) with the sperm chromatin structure assay. In all cases, agreement was 100% with respect to the clinical decision. Paper-based ICP can provide inexpensive and accessible advanced molecular diagnostics.

Rapid and accurate detection of nucleic acids plays a major role in biological research and clinical diagnostics. Here, a 3D multiple self-cleaning electrochemical ratiometric microfluidic paper-based analytical device (SER-μPAD) has been constructed for manganese super oxide dismutase (MnSOD) gene detection on the basis of the inner reference probe and exonuclease Ш (Exo Ш)-assisted analytes recycling amplification method. To simplify manual operations, a multipath self-cleaning tab that could manipulate fluid transport was introduced into the paper-based device, realizing time-programmable self-cleaning of the electrode. For achieving sensitive detection of MnSOD gene, the methylene blue (MB)-modified capture probe (CP) as the inner reference element was first self-assembled on triangular Au nanosheets modified paper working electrode to provide a built-in correction and improve the detection accuracy. When MnSOD gene existed, it hybridized with the hairpin-structured signal probe, triggering the cyclic amplification with the assistance of Exo Ш selective digestion to engender numerous residual DNA labeled with ferrocene (Fc) that could be captured on electrode surface by CPs. Hence, the Fc tags were close to the electrode surface, resulting in the oxidation peak current of Fc (I Fc ) increase, while that of MB (I MB ) was constant on account of the unchanged distance between the MB tags and the electrode. The value of I Fc /I MB was linear with MnSOD gene concentration from 10 nM to 1200 nM, and the detection limit was 3.91 nM. This strategy provides an accurate, robust, and sensitive method for nucleic acids detection and shows great potential in the construction of portable devices., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In this work, we developed a cascade signal amplification strategy for detection of IgG antigen by combining the rolling circle amplification (RCA) technique with oligonucleotide functionalized carbon dots (CDs), based on a paper-based electrochemiluminescence (ECL) origami device (PECLOD) for the first time. In this PECLOD, three-dimensional (3D) macroporous Au-paper electrode was fabricated and employed as the working electrode for specific and efficient antibodies capture. The RCA product containing tandem-repeat sequences could serve as an excellent template for periodic assembly of CDs, which presented per protein recognition event to numerous CDs tags for ECL readout. Under the optimal conditions, the proposed strategy showed remarkable amplification efficiency, very little nonspecific adsorption with good stability, reproducibility, and accuracy. Using human IgG (H-IgG) as a model protein, the designed strategy was successfully demonstrated for the ultrasensitive detection of protein target. The results revealed that the strategy exhibited a dynamic response to H-IgG range from 1.0 fM to 25 pM with a limit of detection as low as 0.15 fM. Importantly, the methodology can be further extended to the detection of other proteins or biomarkers., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Controlled integration of features that enhance the analytical performance of a sensor chip is a challenging task in the development of paper sensors. A critical issue in the fabrication of low-cost biosensor chips is the activation of the device surface in a reliable and controllable manner compatible with large-scale production. Here, we report stable, well-adherent, and repeatable site-selective deposition of bioreactive amine functionalities and biorepellant polyethylene glycol-like (PEG) functionalities on paper sensors by aerosol-assisted, atmospheric-pressure, plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. This approach requires only 20 s of deposition time, compared to previous reports on cellulose functionalization, which takes hours. A detailed analysis of the near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) and its sensitivity to the local electronic structure of the carbon and nitrogen functionalities. σ*, π*, and Rydberg transitions in C and N K-edges are presented. Application of the plasma-processed paper sensors in DNA detection is also demonstrated.

A novel sensitive DNA bioassay using lanthanide-doped LiYF4 upconversion nanocrystals as luminescent marker and oligonucleotide hybridization as the selective reaction is developed in a paper-based platform, providing a detection limit of 3.6 fmol., (© 2014 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.)

In this report, a paper-based micro-calorimetric biochemical detection method is presented. Calorimetric detection of biochemical reactions is demonstrated as an extension of current colorimetric and electrochemical detection mechanisms of paper-based biochemical analytical systems. Reaction and/or binding temperature of glucose/glucose oxidase, DNA/hydrogen peroxide, and biotin/streptavidin, are measured by the paper-based micro-calorimeter. Commercially available glucose calibration samples of 0.05, 0.15 and 0.3% wt/vol concentration are used for comparing the device performance with a commercially available glucose meter (electrochemical detection). The calorimetric glucose detection demonstrates a measurement error less than 2%. The calorimetric detection results of DNA concentrations from 0.9 to 7.3 mg/mL and temperature changes in biotin and streptavidin reaction are presented to demonstrate the feasibility of integrating the calorimetric detection method with paper based microfluidic devices., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Nucleated epithelial cells that are transferred by casual touching and handling of objects are the primary source of biological evidence that is found in high-volume crimes. Cellular material associated with touch traces usually contains low levels of DNA template making it challenging to acquire an informative profile., Objectives: The main purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of DNA typing in fingerprints deposited on optical data discs and the office paper., Material and Methods: Latent fingerprints were made by 60 subjects of both sexes (30 males and 30 females). A highly effective DNA extraction method with QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen) and an increased sensitivity PCR by AmpFlSTR® NGM™ Amplification Kit (Applied Biosystems) carried out at standard 30 cycles and at increased 34 cycles were used., Results: The mean value of total DNA recovery was 0.4 ng from CDs/DVDs and 0.3 ng from the office paper. Amplification of Low Template DNA (LT-DNA) resulted in improved analytical success by increasing the number of PCR cycles from standard 30 to 34. On the other hand, the increased PCR cycles resulted in allele drop-ins showing additional peaks, the majority of which were outside the stutter positions., Conclusions: Rigorous procedures and interpretation guidelines are required during LT-DNA for producing reliable and reproducible DNA profiles for forensic purposes.

A versatile point-of-care assay platform was developed for simultaneous detection of multiple targets based on a microfluidic paper-based analytic device (μPAD) using a target-responsive hydrogel to mediate fluidic flow and signal readout. An aptamer-cross-linked hydrogel was used as a target-responsive flow regulator in the μPAD. In the absence of a target, the hydrogel is formed in the flow channel, stopping the flow in the μPAD and preventing the colored indicator from traveling to the final observation spot, thus yielding a "signal off" readout. In contrast, in the presence of a target, no hydrogel is formed because of the preferential interaction of target and aptamer. This allows free fluidic flow in the μPAD, carrying the indicator to the observation spot and producing a "signal on" readout. The device is inexpensive to fabricate, easy to use, and disposable after detection. Testing results can be obtained within 6 min by the naked eye via a simple loading operation without the need for any auxiliary equipment. Multiple targets, including cocaine, adenosine, and Pb(2+), can be detected simultaneously, even in complex biological matrices such as urine. The reported method offers simple, low cost, rapid, user-friendly, point-of-care testing, which will be useful in many applications.

Lead pollution may cause serious damage to environment safety and human health, especially to children's growth. In this work, by using double stranded DNA (dsDNA) as the recognition element, a simple and effective electrochemical DNA sensor has been developed on a full carbon-based substrate, reduced graphene oxide/carbon paper (rGO/CP), to accomplish the rapid, sensitive and selective determination of Pb2+. Carbon paper (CP) provides a suitable substrate for the sensor with high portability and low cost, while rGO is easily electrodeposited onto CP and serves as both the signal amplification element and the molecular bridge between DNA and CP. Because of its high specific surface area and unique conjugated giant π structure, rGO tightly binds with DNA through π-π stacking and hydrophobic interactions, thereby providing loading of high quantities of DNA. The specific coordination between DNA and Pb2+ further improves the sensitivity of the sensor. The results demonstrate that rapid electrochemical enrichment of Pb2+ is achieved using the constructed CP/rGO/DNA electrode with a linear relationship between the peak current and the concentration of Pb2+ from 1 pM to 100 pM and a detection limit of 1 pM. In addition, this approach shows good selectivity and satisfactory repeatability for river water analysis. A promising sensitive, low-cost, simply-fabricated, and portable full carbon-based electrochemical biosensing platform has been therefore provided for lead determination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nucleic acid amplification testing has great potential for point-of-need diagnostic testing with high detection sensitivity and specificity. Current sample preparation is limited by a tedious workflow requiring multiple steps, reagents and instrumentation, hampering nucleic acid testing at point of need. In this study, we present the use of mixed cellulose ester (MCE) paper for DNA binding by ionic interaction under molecular crowding conditions and fluid transport by wicking. The poly(ethylene) glycol-based (PEG) reagent simultaneously provides the high pH for alkaline lysis and crowding effects for ionic binding of the DNA under high salt conditions. In this study, we introduce Paper-based Abridged Solid-Phase Extraction with Alkaline Poly(ethylene) Glycol Lysis (PASAP). The anionic mixed cellulose ester (MCE) paper is used as solid phase and allows for fluid transport by wicking, eliminating the need for pipetting skills and the use of a magnet to retain beads. Following the release of DNA from the cells due to the lytic activity of the PASAP solution, the DNA binds to the anionic surface of the MCE paper, concentrating at the bottom while the sample matrix is transported towards the top by wicking. The paper was washed by dipping it in 40% isopropanol for 10 s. After air-drying for 30 s, the bottom section of the paper (3 mm × 4 mm) was snapped off using the cap of a PCR tube and immersed in the colourimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification (cLAMP) solution for direct amplification and colourimetric detection. The total sample processing was completed in 15 min and ready for amplification. cLAMP enabled the detection of 102 CFU/mL of Escherichia coli (E. coli) from culture media and the detection of E. coli in milk < 103 CFU/mL (10 CFU) after incubation at 68 °C for 60 min, demonstrating applicability of the method to complex biological samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic analysis is of great importance for the detection of pathogenic bacteria. Bacterial identification must become simpler, less expensive, and more rapid than the traditional methods. In this study, a low-cost, label-free, and wireless paper-based bipolar electrode electrochemiluminescence (pBPE-ECL) analysis system was constructed for the rapid and sensitive genetic detection of pathogenic bacteria. Wax-screen printing was used to form hydrophilic channels on filter paper, and a carbon ink-based bipolar electrode and driving electrodes were screen-printed into the channels. The "light-switch" molecule [Ru(phen) 2 dppz] 2+ (phen = 1,10-phenanthroline; dppz = dipyridophenazine) was used to intercalate into the base pairs of the double-stranded DNA PCR amplification products, and the complexs were then applied to the paper-based bipolar electrode to perform the ECL assays; the ECL of [Ru(phen) 2 dppz] 2+ is quenched in aqueous solution, but this molecule displays intense ECL when intercalated into double-stranded DNA. Under optimized experimental conditions, as little as 10 copies/μL of the genomic DNA of Listeria monocytogenes could be detected. Additionally, the system could also specifically distinguish Listeria monocytogenes from Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Staphylococcus aureus. This label-free, simple, and rapid method has potential in point-of-care applications for pathogen detection.

The sequence-specific detection of DNA hybridization has attracted considerable interest in numerous fields. Although traditional DNA biosensors have been widely explored due to their high sensitivity, it is still challenging to develop a low-cost, portable, disposable, fast, and easy-to-use DNA detection method for public use at home or in the field. To address these challenges, herein, we report a novel microfluidic photoelectrochemical (PEC) paper-based analytical platform, integrated with an internal chemiluminescent light source, a novel paper supercapacitor (PS) amplifier, and a terminal digital multi-meter (DMM) detector, for sensitive DNA detection using a graphene-modified porous Au-paper electrode as the working electrode to obtain enhanced PEC responses. The quantification mechanism of this strategy is based on the charging of this PS, which was constructed on a paper-based analytical platform through a simple "drawing and soaking" method, by the generated photocurrent. After a fixed period, the PS was automatically shorted under the control of a novel built-in fluidic delay-switch to output an instantaneously amplified current, which could be sensitively detected by the DMM. At optimal conditions, this paper-based analytical platform can detect DNA at concentrations at femtomolar level. This approach also shows excellent specificity toward single nucleotide mismatches.

Here, we report a strategy for the design of an inexpensive paper analytical device (PAD) for quantitative detection of oligonucleotides and proteins. Detection is based on the principle of target-induced conformational switching of an aptamer linked to an electrochemical label. This simple and robust method is well matched to the equally simple and robust characteristics of the PAD platform. The demonstrated limits of detection for DNA and thrombin are 30 nM and 16 nM, respectively, and the device-to-device reproducibility is better than ±10%. The PAD has a shelf life of at least 4 weeks, involves little user intervention, and requires a sample volume of just 20 μL.

Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) fabricated by wax-printing are suitable platforms for the development of simple and affordable molecular diagnostic assays for infectious diseases, especially in resource-limited settings. Paper devices can be modified for biological assays by adding appropriate reagents to the test areas. For this purpose, the use of affinity immobilization strategies can be a good solution for bioactive paper fabrication. This paper describes a methodology to capture labeled-DNA strands and hybrids on paper via the anchoring of antibodies with a fusion protein that combines a family 3 carbohydrate binding module (CBM) from Clostridium thermocellum, with high affinity to cellulose, and the ZZ fragment of the staphyloccocal protein A, which recognizes IgG antibodies via their Fc portion. Antibodies immobilized via CBM-ZZ were able to capture appropriately labeled (biotin, fluorescein) DNA strands and DNA hybrids. The ability of an antibody specific to biotin to discriminate complementary from noncomplementary, biotin-labeled targets was demonstrated in both spot and microchannel assays. Hybridization was detected by fluorescence emission of the fluorescein-labeled DNA probe. The efficiency of the capture of labeled-DNA by antibodies immobilized on paper via the CBM-ZZ construct was significantly higher when compared with a physical adsorption method where antibodies were simply spotted on paper without the intermediation of other molecules. The experimental proof of concept of wax-printed μPADs functionalized with CBM-ZZ for DNA detection at room temperature presented in this study constitutes an important step toward the development of easy to use and affordable molecular diagnostic tests.

On-site DNA analysis for diagnostic or forensic purposes is much anticipated in the future of molecular testing. Yet the challenges to achieve this goal remain large with rapid and inexpensive detection and visualization being key factors for any portable analysis system. We have developed a filter paper-based nucleic acid assay, which is able to identify and distinguish dog and human genomic and mitochondrial samples in a forensic setting. The filter paper material allows for transport by capillary force of the sample DNA through the detection surface, allowing the targets to hybridize specifically to their complementary capture sequences. Coupling micrometer-sized beads to DNA allows the results to be visualized by the naked eye, enabling instant, cost-efficient, and on-site detection, while eliminating the need for advanced expensive instrumentation.

We have developed a new method for directly using unprocessed biological specimens as templates for the TaqMan assay. DNA extraction and purification had been believed to be required for the assay, but our new method could avoid hindering fluorescence detection, even if the templates were used directly. Saliva was needed to be put on water-soluble paper and dried, and hairs were cut to be about 10 mm long. This method could reduce both the time and effort involved, and also the risk of contamination. It should prove to be very valuable for genetic diagnoses in various fields.