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The Satellite for Orbital Aerodynamics Research (SOAR) is a CubeSat mission, due to be launched in 2021, to investigate the interaction between different materials and the atmospheric flow regime in very low Earth orbits (VLEO). Improving knowledge of the gas–surface interactions at these altitudes and identification of novel materials that can minimise drag or improve aerodynamic control are important for the design of future spacecraft that can operate in lower altitude orbits. Such satellites may be smaller and cheaper to develop or can provide improved Earth observation data or communications link-budgets and latency. In order to achieve these objectives, SOAR features two payloads: (i) a set of steerable fins which provide the ability to expose different materials or surface finishes to the oncoming flow with varying angle of incidence whilst also providing variable geometry to investigate aerostability and aerodynamic control; and (ii) an ion and neutral mass spectrometer with time-of-flight capability which enables accurate measurement of the in-situ flow composition, density, velocity. Using precise orbit and attitude determination information and the measured atmospheric flow characteristics the forces and torques experienced by the satellite in orbit can be studied and estimates of the aerodynamic coefficients calculated. This paper presents the scientific concept and design of the SOAR mission. The methodology for recovery of the aerodynamic coefficients from the measured orbit, attitude, and in-situ atmospheric data using a least-squares orbit determination and free-parameter fitting process is described and the experimental uncertainty of the resolved aerodynamic coefficients is estimated. The presented results indicate that the combination of the satellite design and experimental methodology are capable of clearly illustrating the variation of drag and lift coefficient for differing surface incidence angle. The lowest uncertainties for the drag coefficient measurement are found at approximately 300 km, whilst the measurement of lift coefficient improves for reducing orbital altitude to 200 km. • The design of the experimental CubeSat SOAR (Satellite for Orbital Aerodynamics) is presented. • SOAR is due to be launched in early 2021 to the ISS and subsequently deployed into orbit. • The mission will perform the aerodynamic characterisation of materials in very low Earth orbit (VLEO). • The aim is to improve understanding of the fundamental gas–surface interactions in the VLEO environment. • Materials able to reduce aerodynamic drag and improve aerodynamics-based control will be tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very low Earth orbits (VLEO), typically classified as orbits below approximately 450 km in altitude, have the potential to provide significant benefits to spacecraft over those that operate in higher altitude orbits. This paper provides a comprehensive review and analysis of these benefits to spacecraft operations in VLEO, with parametric investigation of those which apply specifically to Earth observation missions. The most significant benefit for optical imaging systems is that a reduction in orbital altitude improves spatial resolution for a similar payload specification. Alternatively mass and volume savings can be made whilst maintaining a given performance. Similarly, for radar and lidar systems, the signal-to-noise ratio can be improved. Additional benefits include improved geospatial position accuracy, improvements in communications link-budgets, and greater launch vehicle insertion capability. The collision risk with orbital debris and radiation environment can be shown to be improved in lower altitude orbits, whilst compliance with IADC guidelines for spacecraft post-mission lifetime and deorbit is also assisted. Finally, VLEO offers opportunities to exploit novel atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion systems and aerodynamic attitude and orbit control methods. However, key challenges associated with our understanding of the lower thermosphere, aerodynamic drag, the requirement to provide a meaningful orbital lifetime whilst minimising spacecraft mass and complexity, and atomic oxygen erosion still require further research. Given the scope for significant commercial, societal, and environmental impact which can be realised with higher performing Earth observation platforms, renewed research efforts to address the challenges associated with VLEO operations are required. • Very low Earth orbit (VLEO) can provide significant benefits over higher altitudes. • Higher resolution or lower cost missions can enabled by operating in VLEO. • Orbital debris collision risk and radiation damage are also shown to be reduced. • Launch vehicle capability is increased and end-of-life deorbit is facilitated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Challenging space missions include those at very low altitudes, where the atmosphere is source of aerodynamic drag on the spacecraft. To extend the lifetime of such missions, an efficient propulsion system is required. One solution is Atmosphere-Breathing Electric Propulsion (ABEP) that collects atmospheric particles to be used as propellant for an electric thruster. The system would minimize the requirement of limited propellant availability and can also be applied to any planetary body with atmosphere, enabling new missions at low altitude ranges for longer times. IRS is developing, within the H2020 DISCOVERER project, an intake and a thruster for an ABEP system. The article describes the design and simulation of the intake, optimized to feed the radio frequency (RF) Helicon-based plasma thruster developed at IRS. The article deals in particular with the design of intakes based on diffuse and specular reflecting materials, which are analysed by the PICLas DSMC-PIC tool. Orbital altitudes h = 150 − 250 km and the respective species based on the NRLMSISE-00 model (O, N 2 , O 2 , He, Ar, H, N) are investigated for several concepts based on fully diffuse and specular scattering, including hybrid designs. The major focus has been on the intake efficiency defined as η c = N ̇ o u t ∕ N ̇ i n , with N ̇ i n the incoming particle flux, and N ̇ o u t the one collected by the intake. Finally, two concepts are selected and presented providing the best expected performance for the operation with the selected thruster. The first one is based on fully diffuse accommodation yielding to η c < 0. 46 and the second one based on fully specular accommodation yielding to η c < 0. 94. Finally, also the influence of misalignment with the flow is analysed, highlighting a strong dependence of η c in the diffuse-based intake while, for the specular-based intake, this is much lower finally leading to a more resilient design while also relaxing requirements of pointing accuracy for the spacecraft. • Intake: passive device, collection of residual atmosphere in very low Earth orbit (VLEO). • Use of diffuse and specular reflecting materials. • Design based on free molecular flow and gas surface interaction properties. • Collect residual atmosphere of celestial bodies to be used as propellant for an electric thruster. • Used in an ABEP system to compensates drag of satellites at very low altitude orbits (VLO) to extend mission's life time and enable new mission scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Challenging space missions include those at very low altitudes, where the atmosphere is source of aerodynamic drag on the spacecraft. To extend such missions lifetime, an efficient propulsion system is required. One solution is Atmosphere-Breathing Electric Propulsion (ABEP). It collects atmospheric particles to be used as propellant for an electric thruster. The system would minimize the requirement of limited propellant availability and can also be applied to any planet with atmosphere, enabling new mission at low altitude ranges for longer times. Challenging is also the presence of reactive chemical species, such as atomic oxygen in Earth orbit. Such species cause erosion of (not only) propulsion system components, i.e. acceleration grids, electrodes, and discharge channels of conventional EP systems. IRS is developing within the DISCOVERER project, an intake and a thruster for an ABEP system. The paper describes the design and implementation of the RF helicon-based inductive plasma thruster (IPT). This paper deals in particular with the design and implementation of a novel antenna called the birdcage antenna, a device well known in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and also lately employed for helicon-wave based plasma sources in fusion research. This is aided by the numerical tool XFdtd®. The IPT is based on RF electrodeless operation aided by an externally applied static magnetic field. The IPT is composed by an antenna, a discharge channel, a movable injector, and a solenoid. By changing the operational parameters along with the novel antenna design, the aim is to minimize losses in the RF circuit, and accelerate a quasi-neutral plasma plume. This is also to be aided by the formation of helicon waves within the plasma that are to improve the overall efficiency and achieve higher exhaust velocities. Finally, the designed IPT with a particular focus on the birdcage antenna design procedure is presented. • Inductive plasma thruster: contactless device, avoids electrode erosion, adapts to any propellant. • Birdcage antenna design at resonance for an RF-fed thruster. • Partial acceleration of quasi-neutral plasma plume, does not need a neutralizer. • Collects and uses planet's atmosphere as propellant. • Compensates drag of satellites at very low altitudes (e.g. VLEO) to extend mission's life time and enable new mission scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]