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Floods are the most frequent and most distractive natural disaster around the globe. Pakistan is facing frequent flooding since 1929 and floods in the Indus river basin cost more than 7000 lives and caused mighty changes in land use and land covers (LULC) since 1947. District Layyah hit by flood on August 1, 2010. Landsat ETM+ with 30 m spatial resolution was utilized to investigate the LULC changes in district Layyah for the 2010 flood. It was revealed water area increased 8.05% from July 3 (379.13 km2) to August 20 (656.02 km2) in district Layyah. Vegetation cover increased from 1149.62 km2 on July 3 to 1842.23 km2 on August 20 in district Layyah and showed a 20.13% increment. Barren/built-up area showed a decrement of 28.18% from 1911.72 km2 in pre-flood analysis to 941.90 km2 in the post-flood analysis. Total 15 union councils (UC) of district Layyah were affected by flood from which 10 lies in tehsil Layyah and 5 belongs to tehsil Karor Lal Esan. Flood affects 177 settlements in district Layyah from which 156 belong to tehsil Layyah and 21 were from tehsil Karor Lal Esan. These results suggest that the impacts of the flood on LULC need more attention to cope with the challenge of frequent flooding and impacts in Pakistan.

Precipitation is a major determinant of vegetation growth. The impact of precipitation variability is more pronounced in ecosystems where sensitive vegetation is apparent. Therefore, understanding the relationship between precipitation and vegetation is vital to guide appropriate measures towards fragile biomes. We investigated the trends and correlations between precipitation and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) for 1982–2015 over the Kunhar River basin, Pakistan, using satellite-derived NDVI and globally available interpolated precipitation datasets. Subsequently, we attempt to identify vegetation types that are influenced by precipitation changes. Results show a general decreasing trend in vegetation activity as we go from southern to northern portions of the basin. This decrease is also accompanied by the similarly decreasing precipitation trend in the same direction. The similarity of spatial patterns between the two variables can indicate that, in general, precipitation is playing a guiding role in determining vegetation distribution in the basin. Our lagged correlation analysis revealed that strong precipitation–vegetation correlations (r > 0.75) are rare in the basin. Agricultural and forested areas show moderate correlations (0.5 < r < 0.75) when NDVI is correlated with the previous month's precipitation values (lag1). In simultaneous month correlation (lag0) and the rest of the lagged correlations (lag2 and lag3), a weak association between precipitation and NDVI is observed. The moderate and weak correlations over the basin might indicate that precipitation is not the only factor influencing vegetation growth in the Kunhar River basin. Other climatic and biogeographic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, topography and soil characteristics also play additional roles in vegetation activities. The results can provide a technical basis and valuable reference to ecological management strategies in the Kunhar River basin for concerned decision-makers and stakeholders. HIGHLIGHTS To characterize the spatiotemporal patterns of precipitation–vegetation trends over the Kunhar River basin.; To identify the temporal extent and spatial patterns of vegetation response to precipitation by considering the time-lag effect.

Pakistan is water stressed, and its water resources are vulnerable due to uncertain climatic changes. Uncertainties are inherent when it comes to the modeling of water resources. The predicted flow variation in the Kunhar River Basin was modeled using the statistically decreased high-resolution general circulation model (GCM) as an input for the Hydrologiska Byråns Vattenbalansavdelning (HBV) model to assess the hydrological response of the Kunhar River Basin under prevailing climate changes. The model’s best performance during the calibration and validation stages was obtained with a regular 0.87 and 0.79 Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency in the basin, respectively. Under the high-end emission scenario, a 122% increase was expected in evapotranspiration in the rising season of months during the winter period 2059–2079, and such developments were attributed to an immense increase in liquid precipitation and temperature. The model’s output reflects a potential for basin stream flow in terms of increasing liquid precipitation up to 182% at the beginning of the monsoon season in the period 2059–2079 in the scenario of high-end emissions. Moreover, the study produced possible uncertainties in high-elevation zones, where the modeling of a catchment can lead to typical snow ablation and accumulation in future projections. This study revealed that the precipitation rate will increase annually, resulting in an increase in the summer stream flow over the basin, though snow is hardly expected to accumulate in the basin’s future climate.