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This cross-lagged study examined the classroom-level associations between the reading performance of first-grade students (N = 537) and observed literacy instruction activities in classrooms (N = 30) in the autumn and spring terms. The multilevel analyses indicated that lower average word reading skills in the classrooms (i.e., there were more students who were learning to read) in the autumn were associated with higher amount of activities supporting consolidation of reading and spelling skills in the spring. In contrast, higher average word reading skills in the classrooms in the autumn were associated with higher amount of independent meaning-focused activities in the spring. Higher extent of whole-group meaning-focused activities in the autumn was positively associated with reading comprehension at classroom level in the spring, whereas independent phonological recoding practice in the autumn was negatively associated with reading comprehension in the spring. The study provides novel understanding of the associations between students' reading performance and literacy instruction especially showing how students' reading skills at classroom level may inform instruction in the classroom. This information may guide teachers to adapt their instruction at classroom level but also to identify the students needing differentiation. The results also acknowledge the affordances and limitations students' skills may set for the instruction.

This descriptive case study examined how teaching practices were evidenced in Grade 1 classrooms in two different cultural and educational contexts, Finland and Japan. Teachers' teaching practices were video-recorded in 53 classrooms in Finland and six classrooms in Japan and rated with the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure by trained investigators. Four Finnish teachers and two Japanese teachers having the highest scores in either child-centered or teacher-directed practices were selected for a descriptive case study to take a closer look at how teaching practices in terms of management, climate, and instruction are evidenced in authentic classroom situations. The analysis revealed some similarities and disparities in how teacher-directed and child-centered practices are reflected in classroom situations in the two countries. For example, in Japan, teachers favoring child-centered practices asked more open-ended questions and encouraged brainstorming and group discussions, whereas the Finnish teachers emphasized socio-emotional skills. The results suggest that cultural values may play a role in how teachers create a positive climate, implement instruction, and organize activities in the classroom.

Teacher-student relationship and students' social competence were investigated in relation to the quality of educational dialogue. The data consisted of 151 video-recorded Grade 2 lessons. The teachers (N = 50) also rated their students' (N = 664) social competence and the teacher-student relationship. In terms of teacher-student relationships, closeness associated positively while conflict associated negatively with high quality dialogue. Regarding students' social competence, cooperation skills and empathy linked positively while disruptiveness linked negatively with high quality dialogue. The findings provide new knowledge on how different student-related factors may support or prevent the building of educational dialogue.

This study examined the amount and quality of educational dialogue in relation to student math performance in Grade 2. Domains of teacher occupational stress were considered predicting variables for dialogue and math performance. Video-recorded lessons (N = 151) of 50 teachers were analysed in terms of dialogic episodes to determine the amount (length and number of episodes) and quality (four patterns) of dialogue. Multilevel modelling showed that the amount of educational dialogue associated positively with student math performance. In addition, teacher cynicism was related to math performance via the amount of educational dialogue. Regarding dialogue quality, moderate-quality dialogue linked positively with student math performance, but no indirect associations were found when considering teacher cynicism. The findings provide important new knowledge by investigating the effect of educational dialogue on young students' achievement and by mapping indirect associations between teacher occupational stress, dialogue, and student math performance.

This study investigated associations between quality of the teacher-student relationship (closeness and conflict) and teachers' (N = 48) visual focus of attention in Grade 1 classrooms in fall and spring, and it explored to what extent students' (N = 650) gender and task-avoidant behaviour moderated the associations. Results showed first that teacher-student closeness was positively associated with teachers' visual focus of attention in the fall and spring, whereas teacher-student conflict was positively associated with teachers' visual focus of attention only in the spring. In addition, the results of multigroup analysis showed that students' task-avoidant behaviour had a moderating effect on the association between the quality of the teacher-student relationship and teachers' visual focus of attention in the spring, but gender did not.

Background: Teachers' self-reported stress is related to the quality of teacher-student interactions and students' learning outcomes. However, it is unclear if teachers' physiological stress is related to child-centred teaching practices in the classroom and whether teaching practices mediate the link between teachers' stress and students' learning outcomes. Aims: We studied the effect of teachers' physiological stress and self-reported stress on their teaching practices and thereby on students' learning outcomes in math. Sample: A total of 53 classroom teachers and 866 Grade 1 students participated in the study. Methods: Salivary cortisol in the middle of the school day and cortisol slope from morning peak to evening were used as indicators of teachers' physiological stress, in addition to self-reported teaching-related stress. Teaching practices were observed with the ECCOM instrument. Students' math skills controlled for gender and previous skills were used as a measure of learning outcomes. Data were analysed with a two-level SEM. Results: Teachers' physiological stress did not have an effect on teaching practices or students' math skills. Teachers reporting less stress used relatively more child-centred teaching practices compared with teacher-directed ones. These practices had a marginal effect on classroom-level differences in the gain of students' math skills in Grade 1. There was neither a direct nor indirect effect from teachers' stress on students' math skills. Altogether, our model explained 77% of classroom-level variance in math skills. Conclusions: Teachers' self-reported stress has an effect on their teaching practices, which, in turn, have a marginal effect on students' learning outcomes.

This study quantified the possible learning losses in reading and math skills among a sample of Finnish Grade 3 children (n = 198) who spent 8 weeks in distance learning during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2020. We compared their reading and math skill development trajectories across Grades 1, 2, and 4 to a pre-COVID sample (N = 378). We also examined if gender, parental education, maternal homework involvement, and child's task-avoidant behavior predict children's academic skills at Grade 4 differently in the pre-COVID sample compared with the COVID sample. Children's reading and math skills were tested, mothers reported their education and homework involvement, and teachers rated children's task-avoidant behavior. The results showed, on average, lower reading skills in the COVID sample than in the pre-COVID sample but there were no differences in math skills. Although the COVID sample had lower levels in reading, their developmental trajectories in reading and math skills were not different from the pre-COVID sample before the pandemic in Grades 1 and 2. From Grade 2 to 4, however, the development was slower in reading fluency and comprehension in the COVID sample, but not in math. The predictors of change from Grade 2 to 4 in reading and math skills were not different in the samples. The results showed that the development of reading skills in particular may have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Research Findings: The aim of the present study was to identify profiles of kindergarten teachers based on the observed quality of interactions with the children in their classrooms and to explore possible differences between the profiles in terms of teachers' occupational well-being and teacher and classroom characteristics. Participants were 54 Finnish kindergarten teachers whose interactions with children were observed with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS Pre-K). The teachers also completed a questionnaire about their occupational well-being. Four interaction profiles were identified: Highest Quality, Moderate Quality, Lower Quality with Limited Negativity, and Lower Quality with Moderate Negativity. Differences between the profiles were found in teachers' teaching-related stress, general stress, and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, the profiles differed, albeit marginally significantly, in terms of teachers' emotional exhaustion. Overall, teachers in the Moderate Quality profile reported the most favorable occupational well-being, whereas teachers in the Highest Quality and the two lower quality profiles reported challenges to their occupational well-being. The profiles did not differ in terms of teacher and classroom characteristics. Practice or Policy: Results suggest that teachers' professional development opportunities should focus on both improving the quality of classroom interactions and enhancing teachers' occupational well-being by reducing their stress.

This study examined the occurrence and quality of educational dialogue in the preschool classrooms of teachers with low, moderate and high stress levels. Video-recordings of 21 preschool teachers were analysed based on episodes of educational dialogue and categorised with respect to patterns of dialogic teaching and shared knowledge building. The teachers' level of stress was determined based on their self-reporting of work-related stress and well-being. The findings showed that moderately stressed teachers conducted educational dialogue the most, whereas teachers with low stress conducted dialogue the least. Patterns of teacher-initiated dialogue of a high quality and patterns involving factual knowledge sharing prevailed in the sample. The study contributes to knowledge on teacher stress levels and the occurrence of educational dialogue in preschool.

When classroom observations are increasingly used for accountability and evaluation purposes, a deeper understanding of the psychometric properties of such measurement tools is needed. The present study took a unique approach to examine the psychometric properties of a commonly used classroom observation measure by testing the reliability of indicators for higher-order constructs (i.e. dimensions). We investigated the reliability of indicator ratings of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) Pre-K instrument in Finnish kindergarten and first grade classrooms. Twenty-one observer pairs rated 838 segments identified from the 413 lessons of 48 teachers. Variance components models were specified to investigate variance proportions of each indicator and dimension. The results showed that most observer disagreement was found for the instructional support domain. Observers disagreed relatively more depending on the teacher they observed. There is a clear need for additional understanding on how observers process information on the complex elements of classroom interaction in order to improve training programmes and the reliability and accuracy of the assessment procedure.

This study examines primary-school children's beliefs about their school performance at the end of their first school year in Finland and feedback that they have received, and furthermore possible gender differences between these beliefs. Children from Grade 1 (N = 544), approximately 7 years old, were interviewed. The data were assessed using problem-driven content analysis and inductive reasoning. The analysis revealed ten categories of children's beliefs regarding their school success and failure. The results showed that more than one-third of the children believed that they were succeeding well at school. More boys than girls mentioned that they succeeded in mathematics, and more girls than boys mentioned that they succeeded in literacy. Based on the interviews, teachers rarely gave feedback. Even less feedback was reportedly given by teachers when the children believed that they were performing poorly. Therefore, different modes of giving feedback and the way feedback is provided should be carefully considered.

The present study investigated bidirectional associations between teachers' sense of inadequacy and self-efficacy and factors related to them across one academic year. Teachers (N = 52) rated their sense of inadequacy and self-efficacy in fall and spring, and reported the number of students in need of support in spring. The results of cross-lagged path models showed that teachers' sense of inadequacy in fall negatively predicted their subsequent self-efficacy, especially in the dimensions of student engagement and classroom management. In addition, teachers' work experience and number of students with need of support in terms of social and behavioral problems were related to teacher self-efficacy (TSE). Based on these findings, the number of students in need of support in the classroom is a critical factor that influences TSE; therefore, teachers may need support to manage students with needs in terms of social and behavioral problems to maintain their sense of high self-efficacy.

An awareness of school-related antecedents of children's physiological stress at the beginning of school helps educators to prevent and mitigate children's stress, the one of the major obstacles to their well-being and academic progress. We aimed to study the effect of reading skills and social competence on first-grade students' salivary cortisol levels in natural settings. Based on previous results of the effects of everyday situations on children's stress according to gender, we expected that both academic and social skills would affect girls' physiological stress more, compared to boys. Our sample consisted of 277 students (7-8 years old, 50.2% girls). We used the highest salivary cortisol level of three morning samples and a cortisol level from the middle of the school day as physiological stress indicators. Reading skills were assessed by group-administered tests and social competence by teacher ratings. We found that lower reading comprehension skills and lower disruptiveness were related to higher cortisol levels for girls but not for boys. Higher empathy and lower disruptiveness moderated the effect of better reading comprehension on higher psychological stress in the middle of the school day only for girls. By recognizing the antecedents of children's stress and supporting their academic and social skills, children's, especially girls', physiological self-regulation and coping skills in the primary grades will benefit.

Background: Most previous studies of teaching styles and reading skills have been cross-sectional. Longitudinal research is needed to clarify the direction of effects. The present longitudinal study examined the degree to which differences in teaching styles in the third grade predict the sixth-grade reading performance. The consistency of the findings was addressed by comparing results across students in two countries (Finland and Estonia). Methods: A total of 1,057 students (50.9% boys) were followed from the third to sixth grade. Teaching styles of third-grade teachers (N = 70) were examined as predictors of the development of reading (i.e., third-grade to sixth-grade reading fluency and comprehension). Results: Five patterns of third-grade teaching practices were found across two countries: "child-centred style," "teacher-directed style," "child-dominated style," "extreme child-centred style," and "mixed child-centred" and "teacher-directed style (mixed teaching style)." The mixed teaching style and the child-centred style in the third grade were related to the greatest increases in reading fluency from the third to sixth grade, over and above the contribution of age, gender and maternal education. Conclusions: The findings underscore the importance of the flexible use of child-centred and teacher-directed practices, which are both linked to the development of reading fluency during late primary school years.

Background: Adapting instruction to individual students' needs is known to be effective, but there is a lack of evidence whether students' reading skills are associated with literacy instruction activities at classroom-level. Both the content of the literacy instruction and teachers' instructional support through instructional management are considered. Methods: The data were collected in the context of Finland where first graders' reading skills show great variation at school entry but rapid progress. Students (n = 616) were individually tested on their reading skills, and literacy lessons in 35 classrooms were video recorded in the autumn of first grade. Multilevel path analyses were conducted to examine the classroom-level associations between reading skills (accuracy and fluency) and three types of literacy instruction activities (coded from the video recordings). The number of students present and the teachers' work experience were controlled in the analyses. Results: The results indicated that, at classroom-level, lower average reading skills were associated with more lesson time allocated to code-focused activities such as decoding and spelling tasks in which instructional management was directed for the whole group. In turn, higher average reading skills in classrooms were associated with more lesson time allocated to individual or small group assignments. The reading skills were not associated with meaning-focused activities such as text-level reading activities and class discussions with the whole group. Conclusions: In early literacy lessons, students' reading skills were associated with teachers' implementation of different literacy instruction activities at classroom-level. In classrooms with more students having already acquired basic decoding skills, teachers provided more classroom time for independent practice and individual support, which is likely to support consolidation of students' literacy skills.

The existing literature on early childhood education (ECE) quality is predominantly from the US or other developed countries. In low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), systematic research on ECE quality, however, is very limited. In the present study, we explore variation in structural and process indicators of ECE quality in two Eastern European LMICs, Kosovo and Ukraine, using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K (CLASS) as a measure of process quality for the first time in these countries. We also include Finland because governments in Kosovo and Ukraine show a particular interest in the Finnish education model to inform policy reforms. Participants were kindergarten teachers (n=177) from these three countries who were observed in their classrooms and asked to complete questionnaires. Results indicated variability in ECE quality at various levels, both within and across the three countries. Directions for future research and implications for practice and policy development in LMICs are discussed.

This study investigated teachers' focus of attention and stress in first-grade classrooms. Teachers' (n = 53) focus of attention was recorded in fall and spring with a mobile eye-tracking device, and the teachers reported stress via questionnaires. Correlation analysis was used to examine association between teacher stress (exhaustion, cynicism, and inadequacy) and focus of attention. Then, one teacher reporting more stress and one reporting less stress were selected for a case study to examine variations in their focus of attention. The results showed positive associations between teachers' perceived inadequacy and overall focus of attention (whole eye-tracking recording) both in fall and spring. Teachers' focus of attention during specific activity settings of management/routines and transitions correlated positively with all three stress domains in fall. In addition, a positive association was also found between teacher inadequacy and focus of attention during teacher-directed large group activity setting.

This study examines the association between teacher--child interaction quality and children's self-regulation in Finnish and Portuguese toddler classrooms. The participants included 230 Finnish (M = 29; SD = 3 months) and 283 Portuguese M = 30, SD = 4 months) toddlers and their teachers (n = 43 Finland; n = 29 Portugal). The children's behavioural self-regulation (attention, working memory, and inhibition control) was individually tested, and the teachers evaluated the children's self-regulation skills in the classroom. The quality of the teacher-child interactions (i.e., emotional and behavioural support and engaged support for learning) was evaluated using the CLASS-Toddler observation instrument. The analyses were conducted with path models using a complex option. The results for Finland show that the engaged support for learning was positively associated with children's attention and inhibitory control, and emotional and behavioural support was positively associated with children's inhibitory control. For Portugal, engaged support for learning was positively associated with children's attention. The results aid in recognizing the characteristics of teacher support that is beneficial to the development of children's self-regulation skills in two sociocultural contexts, hence being of relevance for teacher in- and pre-service training.

This study investigated bidirectional links between the quality of teacher-child relationships and children's interest and pre-academic skills in literacy and math. Furthermore, differences in the patterns of bidirectionality between boys and girls were explored. Participants were 461 Finnish kindergarteners (6-year-olds) and their teachers (n = 48). Teachers reported their closeness and conflict with each child twice throughout the kindergarten year. Children rated their interest in literacy and math, and were tested on their pre-academic skills. Cross-lagged path models indicated that teacher-perceived conflict predicted lower interest and pre-academic skills in both literacy and math. Results were similar for boys and girls. Implications for reducing conflictual patterns of relationships, together with promoting other factors, are discussed.

The present study aimed to investigate the associations between teachers' observed emotional support and social competence among Finnish pre-schoolers (6-year-olds). The quality of emotional support was observed using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System Pre-K in 47 preschool classrooms twice across the preschool year. Teachers rated children's social competence in autumn and again in spring, using the Multisource Assessment of Social Competence Scale (MASCS), which produced sum scores for cooperating skills, empathy, impulsivity, and disruptiveness. Consistent with the transactional model, we specified reciprocal (auto-regressive and cross-lagged) relationships within a Multilevel Structural Equation Models (MSEM) framework. The results showed that higher quality of emotional support in preschool autumn was related to more prosocial behaviours typical of the classroom during spring of the preschool year. Children's antisocial behaviours typical of the preschool classroom were not associated with quality of emotional support or vice versa. The results emphasize the importance of responsive and sensitive classroom interactions in promoting prosocial behaviours.

Research Findings: The aim of this study was to examine associations between two aspects of teachers' occupational well-being, i.e., teaching-related stress and work engagement, and the quality of teacher-child interactions in Finnish kindergarten classrooms. Participants were 47 kindergarten teachers with their classrooms of 6-year-old children. Teacher-child interactions (i.e., emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support) were observed twice during the kindergarten year (fall and spring), using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS). In addition, teachers completed questionnaires on stress and work engagement. The results indicated that teaching-related stress negatively predicted the quality of emotional support and classroom organization while teacher's work engagement was positively associated with the quality of instructional support. Practice or Policy: The findings can be used to inform teacher education and professional development in order to promote in- and pre-service teachers' occupational well-being and support them in their work with children in the classroom.

Purpose: This study aims to explore what causes stress to day care center directors and what their coping strategies are. In addition, the study examined the extent to which directors experience work-related stress and burnout, and the factors associated with their work-related stress, engagement and recovery from work. Design/methodology/approach: A mixed method approach was used. Findings: The results showed that the main sources of directors' stress were connected to leading oneself, leading others, managing change and lack of social support. Moreover, the main coping strategies with stress were leading oneself, social support and leading others. In addition, both pre- and in-service leadership training played a significant role in the experience of stress. The nature of factors causing stress and coping strategies with stress may imply that directors need further support in self-management and developing their internal competences. Research limitations/implications: The present study has limitations that need to be considered when making generalizations. First, a small sample size limits the generalization of the findings. Second, the study relied solely on one source of information, i.e. directors' self-reports. Third, data were collected only at one time point at the end of the year when stress levels might have accumulated. Finally, the study has been done in the Finnish educational context where day care center directors' job description varies depending on municipality. Practical implications: The findings provide important information about the causes of directors' work-related stress as well as their coping strategies and about factors that might be related to those. Social implications: Because directors' stress impact on children's development and well-being through teachers' well-being, it is crucial to pay attention on directors' well-being and provide more support for them. Originality/value: The current study is among the few ones focusing on the stress of directors at early childhood education (ECE) settings.

The present study reports on the psychometric properties of the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (ECCOM) in Finnish and Estonian first and third grade classrooms. The observation data were collected from 91 first grade teachers and 70 third grade teachers. Teachers' curriculum goals, teaching experience and the classroom size were measured also. The results of confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence of the three-factor model (management, climate, and instruction) for each dimension--child-centred, teacher-directed, and child-dominated--in both grades. The reliability of the dimensions and sub-scales was good, and some evidence was also found for criterion validity. The findings imply that ECCOM is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring teaching practices in primary school.

This study examined the role of family-related (mother's education, depressive symptoms and child's gender) and kindergarten-related (teacher's experience, teaching practices and class size) factors in mothers' and teachers' mutual trust in Estonia and Finland. Six hundred eighteen (206 Estonian and 412 Finnish) mothers of kindergarten children and their teachers (26 Estonian, 49 Finnish) participated in the study. Both mothers and teachers filled in the questionnaire on trust; teachers' teaching practices were observed with early childhood classroom observation measure. The results of multilevel modelling showed that mothers in both countries trusted more in teachers who used child-centred rather than teacher-directed practices. Teachers indicated higher trust in highly educated mothers and mothers of girls. Estonian teachers with longer work experience trusted more in mothers than less experienced teachers, and Finnish teachers trusted less in mothers reporting more depressive symptoms. The results emphasise the importance of both family-related and kindergarten-related factors in the enhancement of mutual trust.

In the present study, we examined the extent to which the responses of teachers and mothers toward a particular child are similar in respect to their instructional support and affect, and whether child characteristics predict these responses. The data of 373 Finnish child-teacher-mother triads (178 girls, 195 boys) were analysed. Teachers and mothers reported their instructional support and affective responses toward a child in the school/homework context in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4. At the beginning of Grade 1, the children's performance in reading and math was tested, and teachers evaluated the children's externalizing and internalizing problem behaviour. The results demonstrated that mothers and teachers showed similar instructional support and affective responses toward a particular child at the end of Grade 1. Moreover, children's poor performance in reading and math at the beginning of Grade 1 was associated with high amounts of both teachers' and mothers' instructional support at the end of Grade 1, while children's externalizing problem behaviour was strongly related particularly to teachers' but also to mothers' negative affective responses at the end of Grade 1. The results provide evidence for the evocative impact of child characteristics on the child's interpersonal environment at the start of child's school career.

This longitudinal study investigated the associations among children's externalizing problems, task-avoidant behavior, and academic performance in early school years. The participants were 586 children (43% girls, 57% boys). Data pertaining to externalizing problems (teacher ratings) and task-avoidant behaviors (mother and teacher ratings) were gathered, and the children were tested yearly on their academic performance in Grades 1-4. The results were similar for both genders. The analyses supported a mediation model: high externalizing problems in Grades 1 and 2 were linked with low academic performance in Grades 3 and 4 through increases in task-avoidant behavior in Grades 2 and 3. The results also provided evidence for a reversed mediator model: low academic performance in Grades 1 and 2 was associated with high externalizing problems in Grades 3 and 4 via high task avoidance in Grades 2 and 3. These findings emphasize the need to examine externalizing problems, task-avoidant behavior, and academic performance conjointly to understand their developmental dynamics in early school years.

The present study followed 156 Finnish children (M[subscript age] = 7.25 years) during the first grade of primary school to examine to what extent parent- and teacher-rated temperament impacts children's math and reading skill development during the first grade, and the extent to which this impact would be mediated by teachers' interaction styles with the children. The results showed that the impact of children's low task orientation and negative emotionality on their math skill development was mediated via teachers' behavioral control and, among girls, also by psychological control. The negative impact of children's inhibition on math skill development, in turn, was not mediated via teachers' interaction styles. Temperament did not predict the children's reading skill development during first grade.

Research Findings: The purpose of this study was to identify the developmental trajectories of impulsive behavior among 378 Finnish children who were followed from kindergarten to 4th grade. In addition to ratings of children's impulsivity, the analyses included measures of motivation, cognitive skills, socioemotional adjustment, and teacher-student relationship. Four latent groups were identified that differed in the level and change of the children's impulsive behavior across time: (a) a group with low impulsivity, (b) a group with decreasing impulsivity, (c) a group with moderate impulsivity, and (d) a small group with a contradictory trajectory showing an upward trend in impulsivity. The decreasing group showed compromised behavioral regulation in kindergarten but not thereafter, and it was the poorest performing group in reading. Both the moderate and decreasing groups received negative ratings from their teachers with respect to socioemotional adjustment and relationships with the teacher. The moderate group predominantly included boys, whereas the low impulsivity group had a higher ratio of girls. Practice or Policy: By linking the different trajectories of impulse control development to children's socioemotional adjustment and teacher-student relationships in a meaningful way, the findings highlight the importance of behavioral regulation skills in the classroom.

Research Findings: The aim of the present study was to examine classroom quality profiles of kindergarten classrooms using a person-centered approach and to analyze these patterns in regard to teacher and classroom characteristics. Observations of the domains of Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support were conducted in 49 Finnish kindergarten classrooms utilizing the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (R. C. Pianta, K. M. LaParo, & B. K. Hamre, 2008). In addition, questionnaire data on classroom and teacher characteristics, as well as Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (D. Stipek & P. Byler, 2004) observational ratings, were used in the analyses. Latent profiling analysis was utilized to identify different profiles of classroom quality. Four latent profiles of classroom quality were identified that differed from one another most clearly in the domain of Emotional Support. Profile 1 represented a generally high level and Profile 4 a generally low level of classroom quality compared to the other profiles, whereas the medium-quality Profiles 2 and 3 showed varying levels of support in the assessed dimensions of quality. Only a few differences emerged among the profiles in classroom and teacher characteristics: The teachers in Profile 4 provided the least literacy instruction and had the least amount of work experience of all of the teachers. The findings using the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure indicated that child-centered practices were predominant among the profiles of higher classroom quality. Practice or Policy: The results of this study can be used to recognize kindergarten teachers' professional strengths and weaknesses and to support teachers' professional development with the aid of pedagogical interventions. (Contains 4 tables.)

Research Findings: The aim of the study was to examine the applicability and psychometric properties of the Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure (ECCOM; D. J. Stipek & P. Byler, 2005) outside the United States. The ECCOM was used to observe 83 kindergarten teachers (49 in Finland and 34 in Estonia) in classroom situations. Self-ratings were obtained of teachers' teaching practices, curriculum goals, efficacy beliefs, instructional activities, work experience, and group size. The analyses indicated 1-factor solutions for each of the ECCOM dimensions (i.e., Child-Centered, Teacher-Directed, and Child-Dominated) and high reliabilities for all dimensions, subscales (i.e., Management, Climate, and Instruction), and scale items. Evidence was also found for criterion validity. Practice or Policy: The findings of the present study provided support for the ECCOM as a valid and reliable measure of quality of kindergarten classroom processes and practices in cultural and educational settings outside the United States. In addition to being a research tool the ECCOM has high applicability in teacher education and in-service teacher training in professional development programs and interventions aimed at enhancing specific components of teachers' own practices. (Contains 4 figures, 3 tables, and 1 footnote.)