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CO and CO$_2$ are the two dominant carbon-bearing molecules in comae and have major roles in driving activity. Their relative abundances also provide strong observational constraints to models of solar system formation and evolution but have never been studied together in a large sample of comets. We carefully compiled and analyzed published measurements of simultaneous CO and CO$_2$ production rates for 25 comets. Approximately half of the comae have substantially more CO$_2$ than CO, about a third are CO-dominated and about a tenth produce a comparable amount of both. There may be a heliocentric dependence to this ratio with CO dominating comae beyond 3.5 au. Eight out of nine of the Jupiter Family Comets in our study produce more CO$_2$ than CO. The six dynamically new comets produce more CO$_2$ relative to CO than the eight Oort Cloud comets that have made multiple passes through the inner solar system. This may be explained by long-term cosmic ray processing of a comet nucleus's outer layers. We find (Q$_{CO}$/Q$_{H_2O}$)$_{median}$ = 3 $\pm$ 1\% and (Q$_{CO_2}$/Q$_{H_2O}$)$_{median}$ = 12 $\pm$ 2\%. The inorganic volatile carbon budget was estimated to be Q$_{CO}$+Q$_{CO_2}$)/Q$_{H_2O}$ $\sim$ 18\% for most comets. Between 0.7 to 4.6 au, CO$_2$ outgassing appears to be more intimately tied to the water production in a way that the CO is not. The volatile carbon/oxygen ratio for 18 comets is C/O$_{median}$ $\sim$ 13\%, which is consistent with a comet formation environment that is well within the CO snow line.

Small bodies, the unaccreted leftovers of planetary formation, are often mistaken for the leftovers of planetary science in the sense that they are everything else after the planets and their satellites (or sometimes just their regular satellites) are accounted for. This mistaken view elides the great diversity of compositions, histories, and present-day conditions and processes found in the small bodies, and the interdisciplinary nature of their study. Understanding small bodies is critical to planetary science as a field, and we urge planetary scientists and our decision makers to continue to support science-based mission selections and to recognize that while small bodies have been grouped together for convenience, the diversity of these objects in terms of composition, mass, differentiation, evolution, activity, dynamical state, physical structure, thermal environment, thermal history, and formation vastly exceeds the observed variability in the major planets and their satellites. Treating them as a monolithic group with interchangeable members does a grave injustice to the range of fundamental questions they address. We advocate for a deep and ongoing program of missions, telescopic observations, R and A funding, and student support that respects this diversity., 7 pages, 1 table, 1 figure, Submitted to the National Academy of Sciences Planetary and Astrobiology Decadal Survey 2023-2032

We present visible and mid-infrared imagery and photometry of temporary Jovian co-orbital comet P/2019 LD$_2$ taken with HST/WFC3, Spitzer/IRAC, the GROWTH telescope network, visible spectroscopy from Keck/LRIS and archival ZTF observations taken between 2019 April and 2020 August. Our observations indicate that the nucleus of LD$_2$ has a radius between 0.2-1.8 km assuming a 0.08 albedo and a coma dominated by $\sim$100$��$ m-scale dust ejected at $\sim$1 m/s speeds with a $\sim$1'' jet pointing in the SW direction. LD$_2$ experienced a total dust mass loss of $\sim$10$^8$ kg at a loss rate of $\sim$6 kg/s with Af$��$/cross-section varying between $\sim$85 cm/125 km$^2$ and $\sim$200 cm/310 km$^2$ from 2019 April 9 to 2019 Nov 8. If the increase in Af$��$/cross-section remained constant, it implies LD$_2$'s activity began $\sim$2018 November when within 4.8 au of the Sun, implying the onset of H$_2$O sublimation. We measure CO/CO$_2$ gas production of $\lesssim$10$^{27}$ mol/s /$\lesssim$10$^{26}$ mol/s from our 4.5 $��$m Spitzer observations, $g$-$r$ = 0.59$\pm$0.03, $r$-$i$ = 0.18$\pm$0.05, $i$-$z$ = 0.01$\pm$0.07 from GROWTH observations, H$_2$O gas production of $\lesssim$80 kg/s scaling from our estimated $C_2$ production of $Q_{C_2}\lesssim$7.5$\times10^{24}$ mol/s from Keck/LRIS spectroscopy. We determine that the long-term orbit of LD$_2$ is similar to Jupiter family comets having close encounters with Jupiter within $\sim$0.5 Hill radius in the last $\sim$3 y, within 0.8 Hill radius in $\sim$9 y. Additionally, 78.8$\%$ of our orbital clones are ejected from the Solar System within $1 \times 10^{6}$ years having a dynamical half-life of 3.4 $\times 10^5$ years., 28 pages, 8 figures, 2 Tables, accepted for publication in AJ

Planetary radars have obtained unique science measurements about solar system bodies and they have provided orbit determinations allowing spacecraft to be navigated throughout the solar system. Notable results have been on Venus, Earth's "twin," and small bodies, which are the constituents of the Sun's debris disk. Together, these results have served as "ground truth" from the solar system for studies of extrasolar planets. The Nation's planetary radar infrastructure, indeed the world's planetary radar infrastructure, is based on astronomical and deep space telecommunications infrastructure, namely the radar transmitters at the Arecibo Observatory and the Goldstone Solar System Radar, part of NASA's Deep Space Network, along with the Green Bank Telescope as a receiving element. This white paper summarizes the state of this infrastructure and potential technical developments that should be sustained in order to enable continued studies of solar system bodies for comparison and contrast with extrasolar planetary systems. Because the planetary radar observations leverage existing infrastructure largely developed for other purposes, only operations and maintenance funding is required, though modest investments could yield more reliable systems; in the case of the Green Bank Telescope, additional funding for operations is required., Comment: 9 pages, 3 figures; Astro2020 Activities, Projects, or State of the Profession Consideration white paper

Asteroids and comets are remnants from the era of Solar System formation over 4.5 billion years ago, and therefore allow us to address two fundamental questions in astronomy: what was the nature of our protoplanetary disk, and how did the process of planetary accretion occur? The objects we see today have suffered many geophysically-relevant processes in the intervening eons that have altered their surfaces, interiors, and compositions. In this chapter we review our understanding of the origins and evolution of these bodies, discuss the wealth of science returned from spacecraft missions, and motivate important questions to be addressed in the future., Comment: 84 pages, 27 figures. To be published in Treatise on Geophysics, 2nd edition (G. Schubert, Editor-in-Chief), Volume 10 (T. Spohn, Editor)

A survey that can cover the sky in optical bands over wide fields to faint magnitudes with a fast cadence will enable many of the exciting science opportunities of the next decade. The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) will have an effective aperture of 6.7 meters and an imaging camera with field of view of 9.6 deg^2, and will be devoted to a ten-year imaging survey over 20,000 deg^2 south of +15 deg. Each pointing will be imaged 2000 times with fifteen second exposures in six broad bands from 0.35 to 1.1 microns, to a total point-source depth of r~27.5. The LSST Science Book describes the basic parameters of the LSST hardware, software, and observing plans. The book discusses educational and outreach opportunities, then goes on to describe a broad range of science that LSST will revolutionize: mapping the inner and outer Solar System, stellar populations in the Milky Way and nearby galaxies, the structure of the Milky Way disk and halo and other objects in the Local Volume, transient and variable objects both at low and high redshift, and the properties of normal and active galaxies at low and high redshift. It then turns to far-field cosmological topics, exploring properties of supernovae to z~1, strong and weak lensing, the large-scale distribution of galaxies and baryon oscillations, and how these different probes may be combined to constrain cosmological models and the physics of dark energy., 596 pages. Also available at full resolution at http://www.lsst.org/lsst/scibook