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Los acahuales (i.e. selvas secundarias) de zonas tropicales secas o estacionales, suelen ser pobres en especies arbóreas y dominados por unas cuantas especies de arbustos y árboles pioneros, usualmente dispersados por viento, siendo notable la ausencia de plantas arbóreas del dosel cuyas semillas relativamente grandes dependen de vectores animales para su dispersión. Varios estudios han encontrado que la siembra directa de especies arbóreas zoócoras con semillas grandes, en pastizales abandonados puede ser una práctica exitosa para enriquecer y acelerar la sucesión secundaria. Sin embargo, todavía no se conocen cabalmente las condiciones de hábitat o etapa sucesional óptima para realizar la siembra directa de semillas de árboles de fases sucesionales tardías. En este estudio seleccionamos dos especies arbóreas con semillas zoócoras relativamente grandes, que suelen formar parte del dosel de las selvas sub-caducifolias del centro de Veracruz: Brosimum alicastrum y Enterolobium cyclocarpum. Las sembramos en siete hábitats; seis de ellos representando un gradiente de menor a mayor complejidad estructural o desarrollo sucesional, desde pastizal activo hasta acahual de 10 años y el hábitat restante fue selva mediana sub-caducifolia bien conservada. Evaluamos experimentalmente la importancia de la depredación de semillas, protegiendo la mitad de ellas sembradas dentro de jaulas diseñadas para excluir a vertebrados granívoros. Durante un año monitoreamos la emergencia, supervivencia y crecimiento de plántulas, marcando a las que sobrevivieron su primer año, para ser registradas cuatro años y medio después. Un porcentaje relativamente alto de plántulas emergió de las semillas sembradas (75% en Brosimum, 60% Enterolobium). No detectamos diferencias significativas en la emergencia de plántulas entre los siete hábitats, ni entre los dos tratamientos de exposición a granívoros (dentro vs. fuera de exclusorios). Ninguna de las semillas sembradas fue removida por granívoros. La supervivencia y crecimiento deEnterolobium durante el primer año fue mayor en hábitats abiertos sin cobertura de plantas leñosas (ca. 60%) que en los sombreados por arbustos y árboles (80%) que en hábitats abiertos (0%). Nuestros resultados muestran que los pastizales abandonados y los acahuales pobres en especies arbóreas, pueden ser enriquecidos mediante la siembra directa de árboles de fases sucesionales tardías con baja capacidad de dispersión, siempre y cuando se elija cuidadosamente el hábitat (o etapa sucesional) óptimo para la siembra de semillas, con base en la ecología del establecimiento de plántulas de las especies involucradas. En el centro de Veracruz se puede acelerar la recuperación de la selva, sembrando semillas de Enterolobium desde el momento del abandono del pastizal, siempre y cuando se controle el crecimiento de los pastos durante los primeros dos a tres años de crecimiento de las plántulas. A su vez las semillas de Brosimum deberán sembrarse hasta que los arbustos o árboles pioneros hayan colonizado el sitio y sombreado a los pastos.

Spirulina is a filamentous, multi-cellular and autotrophic cyanobacterium having distinct features of helical shape filaments (i.e. trichomes). An investigation is to isolate a marine, Spirulina subsalsa from Vellar estuary, South East Coast zone of India. The isolated strain sub-cultured in Zarrouk medium with optimum conditions for sustaining growth. Pure cultures were examined in a research microscope for morphometric studies through 16S rRNA sequencing and the sequence was submitted to NCBI-GENBANK, the accession number is MW037197 which displays the maximum similarity as 100% with a diverse sequence in databank i.e. LC 215280. The investigation is the first record for the existence of Spirulina subsalsa in Vellar Estuary, South East Coast, Tamil Nadu (India) as affirmed by a molecular nucleotide sequence.

Cucumber is one of the most widely consumed vegetables worldwide, and the fruit spine is an important fruit quality trait. Expansins play critical roles in fruit development; however, the regulation of expansins in cucumber fruit spine development has not been reported. In this study, 33 expansin genes were identified in the cucumber genome V3; additionally, expansin genes in Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, Cucurbita maxima, Lagenaria siceraria, and Benincasa hispida were also identified. Phylogenetic analysis of expansin proteins in Cucurbitaceae and Arabidopsis showed that they evolved separately in each plant species. Phylogenetic analysis showed that C. maxima was derived earlier than the other five Cucurbitaceae species. The expression of CsEXPA2, CsEXPA14, and CsEXLA3 varied in cucumber lines with different fruit spine densities. A yeast two-hybrid assay showed that a putative auxin transporter encoded by numerous spine gene (ns) interacts with CsEXLA2, which may be involved in the development of the numerous spines in cucumber. These results provide novel insights into the expansins related to plant development and fruit spine development in cucumber.

Knowledge of the impacts of invasive species is important for their management, prioritisation of control efforts and policy decisions. We investigated how British and Irish botanical experts assessed impacts at smaller scales in areas where they were familiar with the flora. Experts were asked to select the 10 plants that they considered were having the largest impacts in their areas. They also scored the local impacts of 10 plant species that had been previously scored to have the highest impacts at the scale of Great Britain. Impacts were scored using the modified classification scheme of the EICAT framework (Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa). A total of 782 species/score combinations were received, of which 123 were non-native plants in 86 recording areas. Impatiens glandulifera, Reynoutria japonica and Rhododendron ponticum were the three species considered to have the highest impacts across all regions. Four of the species included in the list of the 10 highest impact species in Great Britain were also in the top 10 of species reported in our study. Species in the higher impact categories had, on average, a wider distribution than species with impacts categorised at lower levels. The main habitat types affected were woodlands, followed by linear/boundary features and freshwater habitats. Thirty-nine native plant species were reported to be negatively affected. In comparison to the overall non-native flora of Britain and Ireland, the lifeform spectrum of the species reported was significantly different, with higher percentages of aquatic plants and trees, but a lower proportion of annuals. The study demonstrates the value of local knowledge and expertise in identifying invasive species with negative impacts on the environment. Local knowledge is useful to both confirm national assessments and to identify species and impacts on native species and habitats that may not have gained national attention.

Mycobionts make up most of the genetic diversity of underground life. Despite their abundance, their impact on terrestrial ecosystem processes is still poorly understood. Estimates suggest that 95% of plant species rely entirely on microbial symbiotes for growth and survival, underlining their importance in soil as a regulator of plant species richness and diversity. In this study, we explore an inventory of the fungal rhizobiome of two populations of Atlas pistachio in Laghouat (Algeria), a typical hot and arid region. Six healthy trees of different age classes were randomly sampled from each site during April 2016. In spite of the arid climate in our study area, microscopic identification revealed important fungal richness belonging to four phyla: Ascomycota, Glomeromycota and Basidiomycota with the exclusive presence of Mucoromycota in dayate Saadi. The fungal strains recorded indicate a high abundance of the Acaulospora sp. and Glomus sp. genera for the Glomeromycota phylum and Fusarium sp. genus for the other phyla. Shannon-Wiener diversity and evenness indices proved to be the highest at dayate Saadi. Dayate El Gouffa, however, is the least disturbed. Most of the strains recorded correspond to genera with a strong affinity for environments rich in organic matter, with high levels of total limestone, basic pH, and high levels of clay and fine silts as shown in the dayate Saadi soils. As for the dayate El Gouffa soils, they show a low organic matter content. They are less calcareous, with a very basic pH and predominance of coarse silts and coarse sands. The high rate of these granulometric fractions could explain the presence of Gigaspora sp. only in this daya. Our results indicated the strong impact of soils proprities on the rhizobiome community composition and might be explained by differences in the degree of fungi selectivity for each sampled site.

SummaryNumerous studies have identified traits associated with pollen mimicry, however, the processes underlying floral deception remains poorly documented for these structures. We studied the importance of attraction and mechanical fit of anther mimics in Tritonia laxifolia (Iridaceae) and their relative contributions to reproductive success.To determine anther mimics role in pollinator attraction, we offered bees’ binary preferences to flowers painted with UV absorbent and reflecting paint. We also conducted preference experiments between flowers with excised anther mimics and unmanipulated controls, from which mechanical fit was assessed using single visits. Anther mimics effects on female reproductive success was determined using similar treatments, but on rooted plants.Bees preferred UV absorbent over UV reflecting anther mimics. Preference for flowers with and without the three-dimensional structures was equal. Single visits resulted in more pollen deposition on unmanipulated controls over flowers with their anther mimics excised, which was directly linked to pollen-collecting behaviour. Controls with unmanipulated anther mimics experienced more seed set than those with their anther mimics excised.This study provides insights into pollinator-mediated selection on deceptive floral signals and shows that three-dimensional anther mimics increases reproductive success through both attraction and pollen collecting behaviours that improves the fit between flowers and pollinators.

The benefit of pollinators to crop production is normally calculated using “pollinator dependence ratios,” which reflect the proportion of yield lost (here reported as a value between 0 and 1) in the absence of pollinators; these ratios are quantified experimentally using pollinator exclusion experiments. Pollinator dependence ratio estimates can vary considerably for a single crop, creating large, frequently overlooked, uncertainty in economic valuations of pollinators. The source of this variation is usually unclear. We experimentally measured the pollinator dependence ratio of two UK commercial cultivars of raspberry Rubus idaeus L., using a range of yield metrics—fruit set, marketable fruit set, fruit weight, and marketable fruit weight—over 3 years (2019–2021), to quantify the effects of yield metric, interannual variation, and cultivar on pollinator dependence ratio estimates. We found a difference in the pollinator dependence ratio for fruit set of 0.71 between 2019 and 2020, showing the importance of carrying out exclusion studies over multiple years. Averaged over multiple years and two cultivars, the dependence ratio was 0.68 measured using marketable fruit set and 0.64 using marketable fruit weight. Imposing a quality threshold (size and shape) below which fruits would not be of commercial value (marketable fruit set/weight) dramatically increased both the pollinator dependence ratio and subsequent economic valuations of pollination service derived from it. Our study shows that, for raspberry, estimates of the pollinator dependence ratio, and therefore, the economic value of insect pollinators, are highly sensitive to the choice of yield metric and can change between years and cultivars. Many economic decisions about pollinator management, at farm, regional and national scales rely on estimates of pollinator dependence. We, therefore, recommend that for estimating pollinator dependence ratios, pollinator exclusion studies are conducted over three or more years and use yield metrics that incorporate quality criteria linked to actual market values and commercial thresholds.

Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), often considered as a bioinsecticide, are also able to colonize and establish a symbiotic relationship with plants as an endophyte. Recent studies demonstrated that endophytic EPF can enhance plant growth and are antagonistic to fungal pathogens. These newly emerging, but not yet fully understood, ecological roles suggest the possibility that EPF may further mediate oviposition preferences and offspring performance of an herbivorous insect. However, such EPF-mediated effects and underlying mechanisms are largely unexplored. Here, we examined the hypothesis that the endophytic EPF Beauveria bassiana can modulate oviposition behavior of the Asian corn borer Ostrinia furnacalis. We observed that O. furnacalis females preferred to lay eggs on B. bassiana inoculated maize plants. This is likely attributed to the net effects of plant volatile profiles induced by B. bassiana, with an increase in emitted amount of insect-attractive compounds 2-ethyl-1-hexanol and 3-hexen-1-ol and a decrease in insect-repellent compounds β-caryophyllene, naphthalene, and α-pinene. This finding provides an example of EPF-induced plant volatile-mediated interaction between plants and insects. However, fewer O. furnacalis larvae, pupae, and adults survived on the oviposition-preferred maize possibly due to lower plant nitrogen content. These results indicated that oviposition selection by O. furnacalis did not reflect the maximization of offspring fitness following B. bassiana inoculation. We suggest that fitness consequences of oviposition preferences should be considered when incorporating EPF as a biopesticide and as a potential biofertilizer within an integrated pest management programs.

Host genetic variation can shape the diversity and composition of associated microbiomes, which may reciprocally influence host traits and performance. While the genetic basis of phenotypic diversity of plant populations in nature has been studied, comparatively little research has investigated the genetics of host effects on their associated microbiomes. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a highly outcrossing, perennial, grass species with substantial locally adaptive diversity across its native North American range. Here, we compared 383 switchgrass accessions in a common garden to determine the host genotypic influence on rhizosphere bacterial composition. We hypothesized that the composition and diversity of rhizosphere bacterial assemblages would differentiate due to genotypic differences between hosts (potentially due to root phenotypes and associated life history variation). We observed higher alpha diversity of bacteria associated with upland ecotypes and tetraploids, compared to lowland ecotypes and octoploids, respectively. Alpha diversity correlated negatively with flowering time and plant height, indicating that bacterial composition varies along switchgrass life history axes. Narrow-sense heritability (h2) of the relative abundance of twenty-one core bacterial families was observed. Overall compositional differences among tetraploids, due to genetic variation, supports wide-spread genotypic influence on the rhizosphere microbiome. Lastly, a genome-wide association study identified 1,861 single-nucleotide polymorphisms associated with 110 families and genes containing them related to potential regulatory functions. Our findings suggest that switchgrass genomic and life-history variation influences bacterial composition in the rhizosphere, potentially due to host adaptation to local environments.

In order to test the systematic position of archaeocyaths, a group of Cambrian, exclusively marine fossils of unclear biological affinity, currently ascribed mostly to sponges (Porifera), we present an alternative explanation supporting the early idea of siphonous green algal affinity of archaeocyaths. The new arguments are based on a study of the morphology, microstructure, and microtaphonomy of early Cambrian (Tommotian and Atdabanian) archaeocyathan specimens from northeastern Siberia. Light microscopic and scanning electron microscopic (SEM) observations revealed that in many specimens the outer, often microlaminated, skeletal fabric grades continuously into the microfabric similar to that of microbial bush-like and dendritic microfossils such as Angulocellularia and Renalcis. The polyhedral to subglobular units characterizing the skeletal microfabric of the studied archaeocyaths and their microbial outgrowths are most similar to recent and fossil mineralized (calcified) colonies of benthic coccoidal cyanobacteria. This means that what had heretofore been interpreted as skeletons secreted by archaeocyathan organisms represent calcareous crusts precipitated by epibiontic cyanobacteria-like microbes, probably associated with a variety of other bacteria, colonizing surfaces and internal spaces of soft-bodied archaeocyathan organisms. Our study shows that a number of the morphological traits of archaeocyaths conserved by the mineralized microbial cover are similar to those of of modern siphonous green algae, like the marine genus Codium Stackhouse (Bryopsidales). Identifiable in well-preserved archaeocyaths are remains of such traits characteristic for Codium species as utricles, medullary threads, juvenile stages (primordia), and coalescence structures. The taxonomic and palaeoenvironmental implications of the recognition of archaeocyaths as possible consortia of siphonous green seaweeds (Chlorophyta) and cyanobacteria-like microbes are briefly discussed.

Delimiting species requires multiple sources of evidence. Here, we delimited two varieties of Halenia elliptica (Gentianaceae) using several lines of evidence, including morphological traits and mating system in a sympatric population, phylogenetic relationships based on nrITS and cpDNA (rpl16) data, and complete chloroplast genome sequences. Comparative analysis of 21 morphological traits clearly separates the two varieties of H. elliptica. Examination of the flowering process and pollination treatments indicate that H. elliptica var. grandiflora produces seeds via outcrossing, whereas H. elliptica var. elliptica produces seeds via mixed mating. Furthermore, hand-pollinated hybridization of the two varieties produced no seeds. Observations of pollinators showed that when bees began a pollination bout on H. elliptica var. grandiflora they preferred to continue pollinating this variety; however, when they began a pollination bout on H. elliptica var. elliptica, they showed no preference for either variety. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the monophyly of H. elliptica, which was further divided into two monophyletic clades corresponding to the two varieties. A large number of variants from the chloroplast genomes reflected remarkable genetic dissimilarities between the two varieties of H. elliptica. We recommend that the two varieties of H. elliptica should be revised as two species (H. elliptica and Halenia grandiflora). Our findings indicate that H. elliptica varieties may have split into two separate species due to a shift in mating system, changes in flowering phenology and/or post-pollination reproductive isolation.

Understanding how natural hybridization and polyploidizations originate in plants requires identifying potential diploid ancestors. However, cryptic plant species are widespread, particularly in Ceratopteris (Pteridaceae). Identifying Ceratopteris cryptic species with different polyploidy levels is a challenge because Ceratopteris spp exhibit high degrees of phenotypic plasticity. Here, two new cryptic species of Ceratopteris, Ceratopteris chunii and C. chingii, are described and illustrated. Phylogenetic analyses reveal that each of the new species form a well-supported clade. Ceratopteris chunii and C. chingii are similar to C. gaudichaudii var. vulgaris and C. pteridoides, respectively, but distinct from their relatives in the stipe, basal pinna of the sterile leaf or subelliptic shape of the fertile leaf, as well as the spore surface. In addition, chromosome studies indicate that Ceratopteris chunii and C. chingii are both diploid. These findings will help us further understand the origin of Ceratopteris polyploids in Asia.

Rhododendron are popular ornamental plants that are well-known for forming mycorrhizal associations with ericoid fungi, but little is known about how host traits influence their microbiome more broadly. This study investigated leaf, root, rhizosphere soil, and bulk soil bacterial and fungal community structure for 12 Rhododendron species, representing four taxonomic clades with different leaf habits. Samples were collected when ephemeral hair roots colonized by ericoid mycorrhizae were absent, and microbial community structure was compared to leaf and root morphology for the same plants. Root morphology and the fungal communities of roots and rhizosphere soil were primarily structured by host ancestry. Leaf bacterial and fungal communities were even more distinct across clades than for roots or rhizosphere, and microbial communities of leaves and bulk soil were similarly structured by clade-wise differences in leaf morphology, suggesting a role for Rhododendron leaf litter in belowground microbial community structure. This work sheds new light on host traits influencing microbial community structure of ericaceous plants, showing a strong influence of ancestry, but also that different host traits drive bacterial and fungal communities across different plant compartments, suggesting future work on factors that drive similarity among close relatives in the non-ericoid microbes associating with Rhododendron.

We analysed data on nucleotide polymorphism at 78 nuclear genes to search for signatures of divergence and selection in populations from across the distribution of Pinus sylvestris in Europe. Data on variation at a large set of maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA markers were also analysed. Most nuclear loci showed homogeneous patterns of variation across populations from Spain, Central Europe, Nordic countries and Scotland. Mitochondrial markers did not reveal strong population structure but suggested admixture of samples carrying different mitochondrial lineages in certain parts of the distribution. At nuclear DNA loci, we found high nucleotide polymorphism, generally low population differentiation and weak signals of isolation by distance. Together with the mitochondrial DNA results, these patterns seem most likely to be associated with a process of colonization from multiple sources and efficient gene flow. The results are in line with demographic inference indicating establishment of Central European and Nordic populations before the Last Glacial Maximum and admixture of colonization fronts from mainland Europe in Scottish populations. Coalescent and outlier detection methods identified several genes showing molecular signatures of selection especially in response to temperature variation in ecologically and phenotypically divergent populations. The study provides a large set of markers for analysis of genetic diversity in populations of P. sylvestris, including candidate genes that are implicated in local adaptation and population divergence.

To understand the reproductive ecology of a plant species with both selfing and outcrossing reproductive systems, it is important to know how selfed individuals contribute to the maintenance of a population. Further, examination of the magnitude of inbreeding depression after pollination is essential for the accurate measurement of reproductive success. In this study, we investigated the characteristics of viable seeds and seedlings of Rhododendron kaempferi Planch. in a region where the bumblebee pollinator Bombus ardens Smith, 1879 are abundant. In a hand-pollination experiment, the fruit set from self-pollination was 32%, significantly lower than that from outcross-pollination (81%). The number of seeds per fruit from self-pollination was one sixth the number from outcross-pollination. However, the number of seeds per fruit was negatively correlated with the mass per seed. In addition, the germination rate was low when the seed mass was light. Although selfed seeds could germinate, 89% of the seedlings died within a year. The inbreeding depression coefficient one year after sowing was very high (0.89). These results indicate that R. kaempferi shows extremely strong selection for outcrossing but maintains a slight selfing potential in a natural population in central Japan.

In many but not all recalcitrant Quercus seeds, water loss during drying only occurs through the scar. Consequently, the embryo axis sitting on the opposite side of the scar is well protected from desiccation. However, whether such a mechanism is common throughout Fagaceae species is unexplored. Similarly, little is known about the desiccation response of other Fagaceae genera. Germination and desiccation tolerance of Castanopsis sclerophylla (Lindl. & Paxton) Schottky (Fagaceae) were studied by drying the seeds with silica gel. Fresh seeds had a moisture content (MC) of 36% and germinated to 92.5% when incubated at 15/20 °C. Drying seeds to 22.5% and 20.7% MC decreased germination to 27% and 5%, respectively, indicating that seeds are recalcitrant. X-ray computed tomography and photomicrographs showed that the embryo axis of C. sclerophylla is located just below the scar. Regardless of drying occurring either through only the scar or the whole pericarp, embryo drying was deemed unavoidable. Nevertheless, germination percentage during drying showed exceptional similarities with the other Fagaceae species.

The timing of germination is a crucial event in a plant’s life cycle. Seed dormancy and germination mechanisms are important factors regulating seedling emergence. Since detailed experimental evidence of the germination pattern of Phoenix canariensis Chabaud colonizing sub-tropical climates is scarce, we investigated seed dormancy and germination ecology of P. canariensis. We found that the embryo is underdeveloped at the time of dispersal and doubles in size before the cotyledonary petiole (CP) protrudes through the operculum. The primary root and plumule emerge from the elongated CP outside the seed. In light/dark cycles of 30/25 °C, the CP emerged from 8% of the diaspores within 30 days and from 76% within 14 weeks. Thus, 8% of the diaspores have morphological dormancy and the others have morphophysiological dormancy. Removal of the pericarp and operculum resulted in 100% germination within five days in a light/dark cycle of 30/25 °C. Cold and warm stratification as well as treatment with GA3significantly increased the germination speed but the final germination percentage was not significantly increased. Seed germination was synchronized in early summer when seed dormancy was released by cold stratification in the soil over winter. A remote-tubular germination type and intricate root system provide an ecological advantage to seedling establishment.

Plants mobilize photosynthates by three transport pathways: apoplastic, symplastic through plasmodesmata (PD), and transcellular. In the flavedo of post-harvest mature lemons, a high level of activity of cell wall-bound invertase (WI), an enzyme associated with transcellular transport of monosaccharides, has been detected. To elucidate whether this high enzymatic activity is related to restricted transport in the symplastic pathway with fruit maturation, the aim of the present work was to compare anatomical and biochemical parameters in peel tissues of immature and mature lemons. Anatomical structure of cell walls, callose deposition, WI activity, and sucrose content were analyzed in peel tissues of immature and mature lemons. The parenchyma of the flavedo tissue of immature lemons presented an elevated number of primary pit fields (PPF). These PPF, associated with PD or cell wall interruptions, had the appearance of a string of beads; however, in mature lemons, the number of PPF was scarce due to callose deposition. WI activity and apoplastic sucrose content increased significantly in the flavedo of mature lemons compared to immature lemons. The present findings lay structural and functional bases relevant to understanding differences between immature and mature lemons, which would help to design agricultural practices in pre- and post-harvest management.

The widespread evolution of tube-like anthers releasing pollen from apical pores is associated with buzz pollination, in which bees vibrate flowers to remove pollen. The mechanical connection among anthers in buzz-pollinated species varies from loosely held conformations, to anthers tightly held together with trichomes or bio-adhesives forming a functionally joined conical structure (anther cone). Joined anther cones in buzz-pollinated species have evolved independently across plant families and via different genetic mechanisms, yet their functional significance remains mostly untested. We used experimental manipulations to compare vibrational and functional (pollen release) consequences of joined anther cones in three buzz-pollinated species of Solanum (Solanaceae). We applied bee-like vibrations to focal anthers in flowers with (“joined”) and without (“free”) experimentally created joined anther cones, and characterised vibrations transmitted to other anthers and the amount of pollen released. We found that joined anther architectures cause non-focal anthers to vibrate at higher amplitudes than free architectures. Moreover, in the two species with naturally loosely held anthers, anther fusion increases pollen release, while in the species with a free but naturally compact architecture it does not. We discuss hypotheses for the adaptive significance of the convergent evolution of joined anther cones.

A new emendation of Psilocybe zapotecorum is presented, based on a new study on the holotype and on the description of pseudocystidia, pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia, confusingly described previously. An extensive and careful review of all holotypes of synonyms, and the wide neotropical distribution is also presented. The traditions as sacred mushroom are analyzed based on a study of codices and anthropological pieces, where P. zapotecorum and related species as P. muliercula and P. moseri are identified. Some of the codices and anthropological pieces showed that the cult of Quetzalcoatl was related to the use of these mushrooms. The application and meaning of the words “teonanacatl” from Sahagun and “teotlaquilnanacatl” by Guzman are reviewed. Moreover, the relationship of P. mairei to the prehistoric mushroom depictions at Tassili in the Sahara Desert is discussed, and the first study of authentic material of this species from Algeria is presented, from where a neotype is selected. Finally, the relationship between a prehistoric mural in Spain and P. hispanica is also discussed.

Se realizó un análisis filogenético preliminar, con secuencias de los espaciadores internos transcritos del rDNA (nrITS) nrITS, apoyando la ubicación de Muellera como entidad monofilética, hermana del género Dahlstedtia, siendo ambos grupos hermanos de Lonchocarpus. Se estudiaron 13 especies de Muellera de Mesoamérica y norte de Sudamérica; se hacen tres cambios nomenclaturales de Lonchocarpus a Muellera; se describen tres especies nuevas para la ciencia: Muellera amazonica, M. burkartii y M. chocoensis. Además se describen e ilustran a M. frutescens, M. tubicalyx y M. unifoliolata y se presenta una clave dicotómica para contrastar las diferencias entre los componentes reconocidos del género.

Estudiamos la interacción entre la planta Cnidoscolus multilobus, sus visitantes florales y la araña depredadora Peucetia viridans. La dieta de P. viridans estuvo compuesta exclusivamente por artrópodos (arañas 32%, insectos 68%). El tamaño del cuerpo de las presas fue de 5.9 ± 1.0 mm, y el ámbito de las presas fue de 11.0 ± 0.4 mm (i.e. 0.14-1.3 más grande que la araña). Basándonos en la frecuencia de alimentación y el tiempo disponible para capturar y alimentarse de las presas, una araña puede capturar hasta 3.9 presas por día, esto dependiendo de la época del año. Entre junio y octubre de 1998 probamos si el número de visitas a las flores era afectado por la presencia/ausencia de la araña (efecto visual). Probamos cuatro tratamientos: (1) sin araña, (2) con araña, (3) con araña modificada (carapacho pintado con rojo), y (4) araña falsa. Encontramos dos patrones dependiendo de la respuesta de los visitantes florales a la araña “invisible” (pintada y falsa). Estos patrones estaban cercanamente asociados con la abundancia de visitantes. Utilizando panículas cubiertas, estimamos el efecto de la presencia de las arañas sobre la producción de semillas. Durante los meses con menos abundancia de visitantes florales (junio, julio y octubre), las panículas sin arañas produjeron significativamente más semillas. Mientras que en agosto y septiembre, los meses con el mayor número de visitantes florales, no se encontraron diferencias significativas entre tratamientos. Los resultados sugieren que los visitantes florales pudieron evitar aquellas inflorescencias con arañas vivas visibles, pero no les fue posible reconocer a las arañas sin pintura. Ya que muchos visitantes florales son potenciales polinizadores, las arañas podrían indirectamente reducir el número de semillas en C. multilobus durante los meses cuando los visitantes florales eran menos abundantes y las arañas no estaban saciadas.

Se describe e ilustra Deiregyne tenorioi Soto Arenas & Salazar, especie nueva de los estados de Hidalgo, Estado de México, Oaxaca, Puebla y Tlaxcala en México. Es similar a D. eriophora (B.L. Rob. & Greenm.) Garay y a D. chartacea (L.O. Williams) Garay; de la primera se distingue por el ovario y la inflorescencia con el raquis esparcidamente glandular-pubescente (vs. lanuginoso), las flores inodoras y el labelo proporcionalmente más largo y angosto, con garganta de color verde brillante a amarillo limón, angosta, con los lados rectos (vs. garganta amarilla dorada, amplia, con los lados redondeados); de la segunda difiere en las flores mucho más grandes, los sépalos y pétalos no teñidos de color café verdoso abajo de la mitad, los sépalos laterales extendidos (vs. fuertemente recurvados) y el lóbulo distal del labelo proporcionalmente más largo y angosto.

Se describe Digitaria michoacanensis una nueva especie del norte de Michoacán y áreas adyacentes del estado de México, en la región centro-oeste de México. En espera de una clasificación filogenética infragenérica actualizada, la nueva especie puede ser clasificada en el grupo Ternata con espiguillas en grupos de tres o más. Se provee una sinopsis y una clave para las especies mexicanas del género Digitaria.

In this study, a new species of the genus Halichondria Fleming, 1828: Halichondria dokdoensis sp. nov. from Korea, was newly described. Morphologically distinct from each other, the new species was assigned to the genus Halichondria. Halichondria dokdoensis sp. nov. has encrusting with a chimney shape and volcano shape, reddish-purple color, and a large extensive subchoanosomal space present.

Systematic review was conducted to determine the state of mushroom related indigenous knowledge in Southern Africa. Fifty-six edible species of mushrooms were recorded out of 266 macrofungi species in the region. Of this number of species, South Africa accounted for 221 species (not exclusive count), Zimbabwe (21), Mozambique (18), Namibia (14), Botswana (10), Zambia (7), and Mauritius (1). The most abundant genera based on the number of species were Agaricus, Lepiota, Cantherellus, Peziza, Termitomyces, Calvatia, Lycoperdon, Amanitia, Coprinus and Coprinellus. The most popular species used for food only (by ≥3 tribes/localities) included Amanita masasiensis, Amanita zambiana, Cantharellus cf. floridula, Cantherellus heimannianu), Cantharellus isabellinus, Cantherellus miomboensis, Cantharellus symoensii, Lactiflius edulis. Seven dual purpose or medicinal mushroom species: Agaricus bisporus, Hericium erinaceus, Kalaharituber pfeilii, Pleurotus ostreatus, Schizophyllum commune, Termitomyces schimperi and Volvariella volvocea were recorded. Only G. lucidum was used solely for medicinal purposes. Popular mushroom species (based on ≥3 countries) included Kalaharituber pfeilii, Pleurotus ostreatus, Schizophyllum commune and Terfezia pfeilii. Much work still needs to be done on these mushrooms.

The new commensalistic lichenicolous genus Ajaysinghia, is described, illustrated, and compared with other morphologically similar fungi. The type species, A. dendriscostictae, grows on the thallus of the corticolous lichen Dendriscosticta praetextata in temperate and subalpine regions of Central Himalaya (Uttarakhand, India). It is distinguished from other lichenicolous ascomycetes described so far in having pseudoperithecia growing in clumps making it appear like galls, (0–)1-septate, brown ascospores [(12–)14.2–17.3(–18) × (3–)3.7–4.8(–5) μm, l/b = (2.8–)3.3–4.2(–4.6) μm], with rounded to pointed ends, slightly constricted at the septum and a cyanobacterial host (Dendriscosticta praetextata).

The congeneric approach assesses the relative role of exotic invasive plants compared to native plants on associated species. However, most studies on seed germination have been conducted in Petri dishes that do not reflect natural soil conditions. Here, we compared the effects of different litter extracts of the exotics Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. and Prosopis pallida (Willd.) Kunth, as well as native Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce, on seed germination and seedling dry weight of two weedy plants (Amaranthus graecizans L. and Sisymbrium irio L.) and the native Senecio flavus (Decne.) Sch.Bip. in both Petri dishes and potted soil experiments. The results indicate that non-treated seeds (control) of the three species attained more than 95% germination in the Petri dishes (in vitro). The increase in the litter concentrations of both invasive Prosopis species inhibited the native Senecio flavus germination and significantly reduced germination and seedling weight of the weedy A. graecizans and Sisymbrium irio. Nevertheless, the native P. cineraria extracts had significant depressive effects on seed germination and seedling growth of the native Senecio flavus but limited effects on the weedy A. graecizans and Sisymbrium irio. The results support a greater impact of exotic than native congener on native plants. To better assess allelopathic effects, it is recommended to not rely on germination in Petri dishes.

Coastal (CTR) and inland temperate rainforests (ITR) in western North America share a rich oceanic lichen flora. The distinctive Methuselah’s beard lichen (Usnea longissima Ach.) is an exception to this pattern of shared distributions, with very few ITR locations. Does this absence reflect dispersal limitations or climatic intolerance? To answer this question, we transplanted U. longissima thalli from the CTR to three ITR locations, assessing growth rates against reciprocal CTR transplants. Canopy microclimate measurements provided concurrent data on growth conditions. Growth rate responses (length, mass, and area) were evaluated after summer and full-year transplants. Notwithstanding extended drought conditions during the summer period, annual transplants at two of the three ITR locations supported growth rates comparable to those at the CTR source U. longissima population, with summer dewfall and autumn rains being major ITR hydration sources. Thalli transplanted to a third ITR site (summer measurements only) in a location transitional to the drier interior plateau lost both mass and length. Based on these findings, we suggest that the absence of U. longissima from much of the ITR reflects the combined influence of dispersal limitations and requirements for stands with long site continuity and topographically induced summer wetting of thalli by dewfall.

Common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) that connect individual plants of the same or different species together play important roles in nutrient and signal transportation, and plant community organization. However, about 10% of land plants are non-mycorrhizal species with roots that do not form any well-recognized types of mycorrhizas; and each mycorrhizal fungus can only colonize a limited number of plant species, resulting in numerous non-host plants that could not establish typical mycorrhizal symbiosis with a specific mycorrhizal fungus. If and how non-mycorrhizal or non-host plants are able to involve in CMNs remains unclear. Here we summarize studies focusing on mycorrhizal-mediated host and non-host plant interaction. Evidence has showed that some host-supported both arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EM) hyphae can access to non-host plant roots without forming typical mycorrhizal structures, while such non-typical mycorrhizal colonization often inhibits the growth but enhances the induced system resistance of non-host plants. Meanwhile, the host growth is also differentially affected, depending on plant and fungi species. Molecular analyses suggested that the AMF colonization to non-hosts is different from pathogenic and endophytic fungi colonization, and the hyphae in non-host roots may be alive and have some unknown functions. Thus we propose that non-host plants are also important CMNs players. Using non-mycorrhizal model species Arabidopsis, tripartite culture system and new technologies such as nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry and multi-omics, to study nutrient and signal transportation between host and non-host plants via CMNs may provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying benefits of intercropping and agro-forestry systems, as well as plant community establishment and stability.

In this study, we investigated four aquatic plants, namely Nuphar pumila (Timm) DC. and Nymphaea candida C.Presl in Nympaeaceae as well as Menyanthes trifoliata L. and Nymphoides peltata (S.G. Gmel.) Kuntze in Menyanthaceae from Mongolia based on field surveys, herbariums, and scientific literature. Additionally In addition, we carefully examined for Nymphaea tetragona Georgi, which was previously recorded in several lakes, Khar-Us, Khar, Buuntsagaan, and Tsetsegt as well as the Ider river in Mongolia. Because we did not find N. tetragona in the field and because it is difficult to identify from herbarium specimens, we believe it has been misidentified at the Khar-Us, Khar, and Tsetsegt lakes to date. More surveys are needed to document its presence. Finally, we provide detailed distribution maps, photo illustrations, and taxonomic notes of four species.

Albizia, a diverse tree genus, occupies monsoonal warm, humid rain forests in tropical and subtropical regions. We recovered a well-preserved compound fossil leaf and two fossil fruits of Albizia (Fabaceae) from the latest Neogene (Rajdanda Formation: Pliocene) sediments of Jharkhand of Chotanagpur Plateau, eastern India. On the basis of the architectural features of the fossil leaf, a new species is established as A. mahuadanrensis Hazra, Hazra and Khan, n. sp., characterised by a bipinnate, compound leaf having a rachis bearing opposite, asymmetrically ovate to sub-rhomboid leaflets, pulvinus on leaflet petiolule and brochiodromous secondary veins. Based on both morphological and anatomical characters of the fossil fruits, A. palaeoprocera Hazra, Hazra and Khan, n. sp. is erected, characterised by flattened to broadly linear shaped, wingless fruits; ovate-elliptic shaped seed chambers having ellipsoidal seeds in one series; irregularly polygonal to rectangular epidermal cells with oblique end walls and randomly oriented, scattered, paracytic stomata. Analysis of Albizia fossil occurrences indicates that the legume taxon was common in Neogene forests of India and elsewhere. The present-day distribution of the closely affiliated modern species of the fossil taxa indicates a warm and humid tropical environment during the time of deposition. We also review the biogeographic history of Albizia in India and other Asian countries.

Myxospermy is an important feature of achenes of the alpine plant Mirabilis himalaica, and the achene mucilage increases the germination rate and early seedling growth during exposure to abiotic stresses, which has important functions that allow M. himalaica to survive the extreme climate of the Tibet Plateau. However, achene formation and mucilage extrusion are poorly understood. In the present study, comprehensive analyses were performed on mucilage production during achene development and mucilage release from hydrated achene pericarp in M. himalaica. First, fertilization initiated the development of M. himalaica achenes, during which their color, size and texture were altered dramatically. Second, using a metachromatic staining procedure, cytological events, the establishment of mucilage secretory cells in the inner epicarp layer were observed. The hydration of mature achenes led to the rapid bursting of mucilage secretory cells, which released a hydrophilic gel that surrounded the achenes. Finally, enzymatic digestion indicated that major components of the mucilage were pectins; glucose (41.40%), rhamnose (26.58%), galactose (18.33%), trehalose (12.12%), and mannose (1.57%) were found to be the components of achene by using ion-exchange chromatography.

Corydalis microflora and C. lidenii are recognised as separate species in “Flora of China” and the latest plant list. However, based on the examination of type specimens and field investigations, C. lidenii is shown to be conspecific with C. microflora. As a result, C. lidenii is synonymised with C. microflora in this study.

Pollen morphology of herbarium specimens of four Centranthus species (C. ruber, C. longiflorus, C. kellereri and C. calcitrapae) was studied using LM and SEM. The research aim was to provide data on their pollen characteristics and to evaluate the taxonomic value of these data for species-specific identification. Pollen grains are tricolpate, suboblate to prolate (P/E = 0.81–1.42); medium- or large-sized (P = 49.21–90.44 µm; E = 43.89–93.10 µm). Colpi are long or medium-length, wide at equator, tapered to acute or obtuse ends. Exine sculpture is echinate-microechinate-nanoechinate; echini (1.00–1.39 µm high) and microechini (0.55–0.98 µm) are conical, with straight or convex sides and acute apices, nanoechini are 0.22–0.46 µm high. Most important characters of taxa diagnostic at species level for the taxonomy are: size of pollen and colpi, exine structure, size of echini and microechini, and pattern of tectum in areas between echini. Pollen grains of C. calcitrapae and C. macrosiphon (sect. Calcitrapa) are generally smaller in size than grains of C. ruber, C. longiflorus and C. kellereri (sect. Centranthus). Pollen of C. kellereri was analysed for the first time in the current study.

The species Valeriana praecipitis (Caprifoliaceae), new to science and endemic to the Ñuble Region, Central Chile, is formally described. Morphological data support its placement in a new species, clearly different from V. philippiana. A detailed description, insights about its habitat and ecology, distribution map and illustration are provided. A table of comparison is also given with the morphological characters discriminating V. praecipitis from V. philippiana. The species is assessed as Endangered (EN) under the IUCN categories.

Calea ternifolia Kunth (Asteraceae), the “dream herb”, is an important medicinal plant that grows from Mexico to Costa Rica. The plant is highly valued for rituals and for treating several illnesses including anorexia, upset stomach, diabetes, periodic fevers, diarrhea, bile problems, and skin diseases. This comprehensive literature survey on C. ternifolia was performed up to January 2021. Our review focuses on traditional uses, botanical aspects, chemical constituents, quality control tests, as well as pharmacological and toxicological studies. Data were recorded using online scientific databases including Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, Taylor and Francis Imprints, National Center for Biotechnology Information, Science Direct, JSTOR, and SciFinder. The information was assembled from research articles, relevant books on herbal medicinal plants and the history of medicinal plants from Mexico, theses, reports, and web pages. The more significant botanical and ethnomedical aspects were recorded including the discovery of the oneirogenic use (enhancer of dreams) of C. ternifolia by the Chontal Indigenous communities in Oaxaca, Mexico. The plant contains sesquiterpenes and flavonoids as the major constituents. Some properties associated with the plant’s traditional uses have been demonstrated including spasmolytic, antidiabetic, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive effects. The plant’s toxicity will be discussed in this paper. Solid pharmacological research provided evidence supporting the use of the dream herb for oneiromancy.

This paper describes the importance of fungi to Canadian Indigenous Peoples. Based on collaborative research with Indigenous knowledge holders and a review of literature, approximately 30–40 fungi are documented as having cultural roles for Canadian Indigenous groups. Some peoples have not eaten mushrooms traditionally, whereas others have a history of harvesting, cooking, storing, and trading mushrooms for their diets. Perennial tree fungi have application as tinder, fire starter, and for carving masks. They also have a range of medicinal uses, some being consumed as medicinal teas, and others applied externally, in some cases by moxibustion to relieve underlying pain. Puffballs also have a range of material and medicinal applications, especially for stopping haemorrhages. Fungi are widely known for spiritual or sacred associations and play key roles in rituals, ceremonies, stories, and beliefs, which are also reflected in the names of some species. The antiquity of peoples’ relationships with fungi is likely very deep, extending back to ancient Asian or European ancestors of Pleistocene times, whose descendants on those continents have used them in similar ways. Fungi continue to play important roles for Indigenous Peoples today, with some being harvested commercially, and many still used in traditional ways.

For Inuit in the subarctic transition zone of northeastern Canada, an intimate knowledge of the environment and local biodiversity is crucial for successful traditional activities. This study examines what kinds of landscape features and habitats Inuit of Nunatsiavut recognize and name. During interviews, community members (mostly Elders) were shown photographs from the region and were asked to describe and name salient types of places in Labrador Inuttitut. The most frequently reported geographical units dealt with the region’s topography (e.g., mountain, island, flat-place), hydrology (e.g., river, bay), and superficial characteristics (e.g., bedrock, permanent snow patch). Ecological considerations were also prominent, such as plant associations and animal habitats (e.g., shrubby-place, wetland, caribou-return-to-place). Areas were often characterized by a dominant species or substrate type, being named using the plural form of the species and (or)substrate (e.g., “napâttuk” meaning ‘tree’ and “napâttuit” meaning ‘forest’ or “siugak” meaning ‘sand’ and “siugalak” meaning ‘sandy-area’). Some types of places reported by Inuit were significant mainly for traditional activities (e.g., berry-patch, seal-place, dry-wood-place, danger-place), aiding navigation and resource finding. Integrating Inuit conceptions of ecosystems and their component landscape units with those of contemporary science can improve our understanding of subarctic ecology, benefit climate change adaptation strategies, and Inuit language as well as culture conservation initiatives.

There are many different types of berry-producing plants that grow throughout North America. These various species of plants produce berries, known by their common names, such as blueberry, lingonberry, cranberry, crowberry, blackberry, bunchberry, bearberry, and strawberry. The berry fruits are important food sources and can be eaten fresh or preserved. The leaves of several species can also be enjoyed in teas. Contemporary medicine has demonstrated many potential health benefits of berries due to their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. Indigenous Peoples have not only utilized berries as food, likely over many centuries, but have also passed down knowledge on the medicinal uses of various parts of these plants including the fruits, leaves and roots. This short review provides a synopsis of some of the major species of berry-producing plants that are prevalent in Canada, particularly eastern Canada. Current knowledge and traditional uses of important species of berry-producing plants are discussed.

Two new species, Drymonia intermedia Clavijo & J.L.Clark, sp. nov. and D. longiflora J.L.Clark & Clavijo, sp. nov. (Gesneriaceae, Columneinae), are described from the western Andean slopes of Ecuador and Colombia. The new species are similar to D. fimbriata, D. laciniosa, D. macrophylla, and D. peponifera because of the facultative epiphytic habit, deeply serrate to laciniate calyx margins, and fleshy bivalved capsules with tardily dehiscent endocarps. Leaves with brochidodromous venation, narrowly elongate corolla tube, and laciniate calyx margins differentiate D. intermedia. The longest corolla of any known Drymonia (> 6.5 cm long) differentiates D. longiflora. Digital photographs, geographic distributions, and IUCN categories are provided for the new species.

Seeking to generate a deeper methodological and theoretical dialogue between botanical science and anthropology, this paper summarizes interdisciplinary approaches to human–plant interactions we have described as “sensory ecology” and “phytoethnography”, applying these concepts to vital questions about human–plant relations in Amazonia. Building on this work, we broaden the scope of our investigations by considering their relevance to the field of historical ecology. In particular, we discuss Eduardo Viveiros de Castro’s concept of “multinaturalism” and explore how it can be applied to understanding management and domestication of forest landscapes in Amazonia by Indigenous Peoples.

Revitalizing Indigenous land-based practices is an act of resurgence and resistance. The presence of Indigenous bodies occupying land to nourish and strengthen themselves through ancestral practices is a political act. These cultural systems of knowledge and practice are in opposition to historical and ongoing colonial attempts to dispossess Indigenous Peoples of their connections to land. Indigenous People have undergone changes in diet and land access, including cultivating and harvesting plants for health and wellbeing. Recognizing and understanding the impacts and implications of colonization on land-based knowledge is fundamental in carrying out meaningful work within Indigenous communities in the field of ethnobotany. Much of the literature and media on Indigenous issues continue to uphold trauma narratives. When working with Indigenous communities on projects, it is essential to understand the history, impacts, and ongoing struggles related to colonization and genocide in America to not cause harm and to contribute positively to these communities. Furthermore, by taking our responsibilities one step further, we can carry out research in trauma-informed ways while prioritizing anti-oppressive, decolonial, and strength-based approaches to our research and collaborations with Indigenous communities. We illustrate these points through a community-based case study from the Squamish Nation in British Columbia, Canada.

Pleocatenata, a new genus, is introduced with its type species, Pleocatenata chiangraiensis, which was isolated from withered twigs of two medicinal plants, Clerodendrum quadriloculare (Blanco) Merr (Verbenaceae) and Tarenna stellulata (Hook.f.) Ridl (Rubiaceae) in northern Thailand. The genus is characterized by mononematous, septate, brown or dark brown conidiophores, monotretic conidiogenous cells and catenate, obclavate, olivaceous to blackish brown conidia. Phylogenetic analysis of combined LSU, SSU, tef1-α, rpb2 and ITS sequence data showed Pleocatenata forms a distinct phylogenetic lineage in Pleosporales, Dothideomycetes. Therefore, we treat Pleocatenata as Pleosporales genera incertae sedis based on morphology and phylogenetic analyses. Descriptions and illustrations of the new taxa are provided, and it is compared with morphologically similar genera.

The Asteraceae is the largest family of plants in North America and is widely used as medicine by Indigenous peoples. This study investigated the medicinal ethnobotany of North American Asteraceae to identify taxa that appear preferentially selected or avoided for general and specific medicinal uses. Asteraceae-specific ethnobotanical reports recorded in the Native American Ethnobotany database were compiled and, using residual and binomial analyses, 14 tribes were compared and ranked as either over- or under-selected for medicine, food, or technology, and for different categories of medicinal applications. Statistical analysis supported the hypothesis that the selection of species for ethnobotanical purposes is non-random and does not depend on the size of the flora. The Anthemideae tribe was identified as over-selected for all types of applications, including most therapeutic categories, most significantly as pulmonary and orthopedic aids. Subsequent analysis revealed that the over-representation of this tribe was attributed mainly to Achillea millefolium L. and Artemisia spp. The significance of Anthemideae, particularly of Achillea and Artemisia species as highly selected medicinal taxa, emphasizes their cultural importance to Indigenous North Americans. Residual and binomial statistics generally provided parallel results, but supplementary statistical methods, further in-depth investigation of other use categories, and inclusion of plant distribution data may provide greater insight into traditional uses of Asteraceae in North America.

This review describes an Indigenous-led project run by Q’eqchi’ Maya Healers of Belize meant to strengthen and improve traditional botanical healing. The goals of this project were to conserve medicinal plant knowledge by way of ethnobotanical studies, and to conserve the plants themselves by creating a community ethnobotanical garden. A total of 169 medicinal species were collected in the ethnobotanical survey, which provided unique knowledge on many rainforest species of the wet lowland forest of southern Belize, not found in neighbouring Indigenous cultures. Consensus on plant uses by the Healers was high, indicating a well-conserved, codified oral history. After horticultural experimentation by the Healers, the Indigenous botanical garden provided a habitat for and conservation of 102 medicinal species including many epiphytes that were rescued from forested areas. Ethnopharmacological studies by the university partners showed a pharmacological basis for, and active principles of, plants used for epilepsy and anxiety, for inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, for dermatological mycoses, and for type 2 diabetes complications. Overall, the project has provided a model for Indigenous empowerment and First Nation’s science, as well as establishing traditional medicine as an important, unified healing practice that can safely and effectively provide primary health care in its cultural context.