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Brucella ceti infection is associated with a variety of disease outcomes in cetaceans globally. Multiple genotypes of B. ceti have been identified. This retrospective aimed to determine if specific lesions were associated with different B. ceti DNA sequence types (STs). Characterization of ST was performed on 163 samples from 88 free-ranging cetaceans, including common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus (T.t.; n = 73), common short-beaked dolphin Delphinus delphis (D.d.; n = 7), striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba (n = 3), Pacific white-sided dolphin Lagenorhynchus obliquidens (n = 2), sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus (n = 2), and harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena (n = 1), that stranded along the coast of the US mainland and Hawaii. ST was determined using a previously described insertion sequence 711 quantitative PCR. Concordance with 9-locus multi-locus sequence typing was assessed in a subset of samples (n = 18). ST 26 was most commonly identified in adult dolphins along the US east coast with non-suppurative meningoencephalitis (p = 0.009). Animals infected with ST 27 were predominately perinates that were aborted or died shortly after birth with evidence of in utero pneumonia (p = 0.035). Reproductive tract inflammation and meningoencephalitis were also observed in adult T.t. and D.d. with ST 27, though low sample size limited interpretation. ST 23 infections can cause disease in cetacean families other than porpoises (Phocoenidae), including neurobrucellosis in D.d. In total, 11 animals were potentially infected with multiple STs. These data indicate differences in pathogenesis among B. ceti STs in free-ranging cetaceans, and infection with multiple STs is possible.

Odontocete cetaceans have undergone profound modifications to their integument and sensory systems and are generally thought to lack specialized exocrine glands that in terrestrial mammals function to produce chemical signals (Thewissen & Nummela, 2008). Keenan-Bateman et al. (2016, 2018), though, introduced an enigmatic exocrine gland, associated with the false gill slit pigmentation pattern in Kogia breviceps. These authors provided a preliminary description of this cervical gill slit gland in their helminthological studies of the parasitic nematode, Crassicauda magna. This study offers the first detailed gross and histological description of this gland and reports upon key differences between immature and mature individuals. Investigation reveals it is a complex, compound tubuloalveolar gland with a well-defined duct that leads to a large, and expandable central chamber, which in turn leads to two caudally projecting diverticula. All regions of the gland contain branched tubular and alveolar secretory regions, although most are found in the caudal diverticula, where the secretory process is holocrine. The gland lies between slips of cutaneous muscle, and is innervated by lamellar corpuscles, resembling Pacinian's corpuscles, suggesting that its secretory product may be actively expressed into the environment. Mature K. breviceps display larger gland size, and increased functional activity in glandular tissues, as compared to immature individuals. These results demonstrate that the cervical gill slit gland of K. breviceps shares morphological features of the specialized, chemical signaling, exocrine glands of terrestrial members of the Cetartiodactyla.

During necropsy of two manatees, masses in multiple organs including liver and spleen were identified. They were composed of neoplastic round to spindle-shaped cells, positive for vimentin, Iba-1, lysozyme, and Mac387, consistent with histiocytic sarcoma. One manatee also had an undifferentiated sarcoma that may have arisen from the histiocytic sarcoma.

Esophageal and pharyngeal obstruction are commonly reported in marine mammals, but asphyxiation from blowhole and nasal cavity obstruction has been reported only rarely: in two long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas), several harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), and one common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). We describe two cases of blowhole obstruction and subsequent asphyxiation in bottlenose dolphins caused by eels. A whip eel (Bascanichthys scuticaris) was found obstructing the blowhole of a deceased dolphin from the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, US (2011) and a shrimp eel (Ophichthus gomesii) was found obstructing the blowhole of a deceased dolphin from Tampa Bay, Florida (2020). Normally, the respiratory and digestive tracts of cetaceans do not communicate. Consuming large or oddly shaped prey can result in laryngeal displacement and subsequent interaction between the two systems. It is likely the eels entered the oral cavity while the dolphins were consuming or playing with prey, and laryngeal displacement enabled the eels to slither into and become stuck in the nasal passage, causing asphyxiation. These novel findings underscore the importance of continued investigation into causes of mortality in stranded marine mammals and can contribute to the knowledge of feeding ecology in bottlenose dolphins. As changing environmental conditions contribute to shifts in prey availability and abundance, mortality due to prey-related asphyxiation could become more common in odontocetes.

Adenoviruses are common pathogens infecting a wide range of vertebrates. Few cetacean adenoviruses have been described in the literature, and their pathogenicity is still unclear. Using PCR-based viral and bacterial pathogen surveillance in Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort seas bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) legally harvested 2012-15 during Alaskan aboriginal subsistence hunts, six of 59 bowhead whales (10%) tested positive for adenovirus DNA in the spleen. We found a high degree of sequence divergence from other mastadenoviruses, suggesting these may represent a novel species, tentatively named bowhead whale adenovirus. The sequences detected are distinct from adenoviruses previously identified in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena), forming two distinct clades in the cetacean hosts. The clinical impact is unclear, since no histopathologic evidence of adenovirus-associated disease was found. Furthermore, detection of adenovirus DNA in the spleen, contrary to other cetacean adenoviruses detected in the intestinal tract, may suggest a broader tissue tropism. Our study demonstrates adenovirus infection in bowhead whales and the usefulness of molecular diagnostics to discover and genetically characterize novel viruses in marine mammals.

The challenge of identifying cause of death in discarded bycaught marine mammals stems from a combination of the non-specific nature of the lesions of drowning, the complex physiologic adaptations unique to breath-holding marine mammals, lack of case histories, and the diverse nature of fishing gear. While no pathognomonic lesions are recognized, signs of acute external entanglement, bulging or reddened eyes, recently ingested gastric contents, pulmonary changes, and decompression-associated gas bubbles have been identified in the condition of peracute underwater entrapment (PUE) syndrome in previous studies of marine mammals. We reviewed the gross necropsy and histopathology reports of 36 cetaceans and pinnipeds including 20 directly observed bycaught and 16 live stranded animals that were euthanized between 2005 and 2011 for lesions consistent with PUE. We identified 5 criteria which present at significantly higher rates in bycaught marine mammals: external signs of acute entanglement, red or bulging eyes, recently ingested gastric contents, multi-organ congestion, and disseminated gas bubbles detected grossly during the necropsy and histologically. In contrast, froth in the trachea or primary bronchi, and lung changes (i.e. wet, heavy, froth, edema, congestion, and hemorrhage) were poor indicators of PUE. This is the first study that provides insight into the different published parameters for PUE in bycatch. For regions frequently confronted by stranded marine mammals with non-specific lesions, this could potentially aid in the investigation and quantification of marine fisheries interactions.

Tags have been used to examine migration routes and habitat use of large whales for >40 yr, however, evaluation of tag wound healing has largely been short-term, anecdotal or generalized. This study developed methods for systematic photographic assessment of long-term external consequences of tag placement, to determine potential differences in wound healing between species and tag types and thus advise future tagging efforts to possibly minimize undesirable side effects. Tag site appearance and healing characteristics were evaluated by two reviewers and a time series evaluated by five veterinarians from photographs during 995 postdeployment encounters with 34 gray and 63 blue whales tagged in the North Pacific. Blue whale resightings were less frequent, but spanned a longer time period due to earlier tag deployments than the more frequent gray whale follow-up observations. Swelling occurred in 74% of reencountered gray whales, with the highest frequency 6 mo postdeployment. Swellings were common in blue whales with early tag designs but rare with current models. Depressions occurred in 82% of gray and 71% of blue whales. This study demonstrates the value of follow-up studies of tagged animals and systematic scoring of photographs to quantitatively compare tag response.

This case study describes a persistent Mü̈llerian duct syndrome (PMDS), a rare form of XY disorder of sex development (DSD), in a mature (15 yr) beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas. The phenotypically and genetically male beluga whale had both Mü̈llerian (paramesonephric) and Wolffian (mesonephric) duct derivatives. A mild hydrometra was present. Gross and histological analyses indicated the testes were atrophied. Histopathologic findings in the testes also included fibrosis in addition to ductus deferens ductular dilation, epididymal ductular dilation, lymphoplasmacytic balanitis, uterine glandular atrophy, and endometrial fibrosis. DSDs are rarely reported in cetaceans, and PMDS has never been described in a cetacean.

Seventy mortalities of North Atlantic right whales Eubalaena glacialis (NARW) were documented between 2003 and 2018 from Florida, USA, to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. These included 29 adults, 14 juveniles, 10 calves, and 17 of unknown age class. Females represented 65.5% (19/29) of known-sex adults. Fourteen cases had photos only; 56 carcasses received external examinations, 44 of which were also necropsied. Cause of death was determined in 43 cases, of which 38 (88.4%) were due to anthropogenic trauma: 22 (57.9%) from entanglement, and 16 (42.1%) from vessel strike. Gross and histopathologic lesions associated with entanglement were often severe and included deep lacerations caused by constricting line wraps around the flippers, flukes, and head/mouth; baleen plate mutilation; chronic extensive bone lesions from impinging line, and traumatic scoliosis resulting in compromised mobility in a calf. Chronically entangled whales were often in poor body condition and had increased cyamid burden, reflecting compromised health. Vessel strike blunt force injuries included skull and vertebral fractures, blubber and muscle contusions, and large blood clots. Propeller-induced wounds often caused extensive damage to blubber, muscle, viscera, and bone. Overall prevalence of NARW entanglement mortalities increased from 21% (1970-2002) to 51% during this study period. This demonstrates that despite mitigation efforts, entanglements and vessel strikes continue to inflict profound physical trauma and suffering on individual NARWs. These cumulative mortalities are also unsustainable at the population level, so urgent and aggressive intervention is needed to end anthropogenic mortality in this critically endangered species.

This case describes a metastatic Sertoli cell tumor (SCT) with lymphatic spread to the abdominal and thoracic lymph nodes, pancreas, and adrenal gland in an adult spotted seal Phoca largha. The neoplasm was composed of tubules lined by palisading neoplastic cells separated by a variably dense fibrous stroma. This pinniped was 1 of 2 cryptorchid seals and the sole case of genital neoplasia among 70 ice seals necropsied by the North Slope Borough from 2012 to 2017. Overall, SCTs are rarely reported in marine mammals.

The parasitic nematode Crassicauda sp. was initially described in kogiid whales from specimens collected within cervical tissues, uncommon sites of infection for this parasite. Crassicauda sp. has only been reported in Kogia breviceps to date, but no study has yet investigated a large sample of both kogiid species. A 15 yr record of 104 kogiid strandings (K. sima, n = 40; K. breviceps, n = 64) in North Carolina and Virginia, U.S.A. was used to determine the prevalence of Crassicauda sp. across species, within species across sex, and within sex across length and life history categories. Crassicauda sp. was confirmed to be a species-specific parasite among kogiids infecting only K. breviceps (prevalence = 45%). Within K. breviceps, prevalence was similar (45%) in both immature and mature males, but increased from 10% in immature to 76% in mature females. This study confirmed the cervico-thoracic distribution of the parasite, and identified a novel site of infection in a previously undescribed exocrine gland associated with the pigmented “false gill slit.” The species-specific nature of Crassicauda sp. infection, the exocrine gland, and the distinct features of the false gill slit pigmentation associated with the gland, are all useful characters to identify kogiid species in the field.

The viral genus Morbillivirus and the bacterial genus Brucella have emerged as important groups of pathogens that are known to affect cetacean health on a global scale, but neither pathogen has previously been reported from endangered sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). A female neonate sperm whale stranded alive and died near Laie on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, US, in May of 2011. Congestion of the cerebrum and enlarged lymph nodes were noted on the gross necropsy. Microscopic findings included lymphoid depletion, chronic meningitis, and pneumonia, suggesting an in utero infection. Cerebrum, lung, umbilicus, and select lymph nodes (tracheobronchial and mediastinal) were positive for Brucella by PCR. Brucella sp. was also cultured from the cerebrum and from mediastinal and tracheobronchial lymph nodes. Twelve different tissues were screened for Morbillivirus by reverse-transcriptase (RT)-PCR and select tissues by immunohistochemistry, but only the tracheobronchial lymph node and spleen were positive by RT-PCR. Pathologic findings observed were likely a result of Brucella, but Morbillivirus may have played a key role in immune suppression of the mother and calf. The in utero infection in this individual strongly supports vertical transmission of both pathogens.

A subadult male Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) stranded dead on Florida's Atlantic coast in January 2015. Necropsy and histopathologic findings confirmed chronic systemic bacterial infection caused by Salmonella enterica serotype IV 50:z4,z23,:- involving renal, respiratory, lymphatic, and skeletal systems. This was a unique case of systemic salmonellosis in a Florida manatee.

Extinctions and declines of large marine vertebrates have major ecological impacts and are of critical concern in marine environments. The Caribbean monk seal, Monachus tropicalis, last definitively reported in 1952, was one of the few marine mammal species to become extinct in historical times. Despite its importance for understanding the evolutionary biogeography of southern phocids, the relationships of M.tropicalis to the two living species of critically endangered monk seals have not been resolved. In this study we present the first molecular data for M. tropicalis, derived from museum skins. Phylogenetic analysis of cytochrome b sequences indicates that M. tropicalis was more closely related to the Hawaiian rather than the Mediterranean monk seal. Divergence time estimation implicates the formation of the Panamanian Isthmus in the speciation of Caribbean and Hawaiian monk seals. Molecular, morphological and temporal divergence between the Mediterranean and “New World monk seals” (Hawaiian and Caribbean) is profound, equivalent to or greater than between sister genera of phocids. As a result, we classify the Caribbean and Hawaiian monk seals together in a newly erected genus, Neomonachus. The two genera of extant monk seals (Monachus and Neomonachus) represent old evolutionary lineages each represented by a single critically endangered species, both warranting continuing and concerted conservation attention and investment if they are to avoid the fate of their Caribbean relative.

The current paucity of published blood values and other clinically relevant data for short-beaked common dolphins, Delphinus delphis, hinders the ability of veterinarians and responders to make well-informed diagnoses and disposition decisions regarding live strandings of this species. This study examined hematologic, clinical chemistry, and physical parameters from 26 stranded common dolphins on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in light of their postrelease survival data to evaluate each parameter's efficacy as a prognostic indicator. Statistically and clinically significant differences were found between failed and survived dolphins, including lower hematocrit, hemoglobin, TCO2, and bicarbonate and higher blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, and length-to-girth ratios in animals that failed. In general when compared to survivors, failed dolphins exhibited acidosis, dehydration, lower PCVs, and decreased body condition. Additionally, failed dolphins had the highest ALT, AST, CK, LDH, GGT, and lactate values. These blood values combined with necropsy findings indicate that there are likely a variety of factors affecting postrelease survival, including both preexisting illness and stranding-induced conditions such as capture myopathy. Closer evaluation of these parameters for stranded common dolphins on point of care analyzers in the field may allow stranding personnel to make better disposition decisions in the future.

Biliary cirrhosis produced by Campula spp. is described in 1 striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba and 4 harbour porpoises Phocoena phocoena. The hepatic lesions consisted of severe proliferation of fibrous connective tissue with loss of the lobular pattern, nodular regeneration of the hepatic tissue, bile duct hyperplasia and severe inflammatory infiltrate composed of eosinophils, macrophages, lymphocytes and plasma cells. These lesions were associated with severe infestation by Campula spp. Although inflammatory and degenerative hepatic lesions are frequently found in stranded dolphins, biliary cirrhosis has not been previously reported in cetaceans. Massive infestation by these parasites should be included as a cause of hepatic failure resulting in stranding of marine mammals.

Marine mammals are important indicators for ecosystem health and serve as sentinel species for infectious agents including zoonoses. Histological examination of tissues from a stranded Florida manatee Trichechus manatus latirostris revealed protozoal cysts in the cerebrum and intrahistiocytic tachyzoites in the liver and caudal mesenteric lymph node. Disseminated Toxoplasma gondii infection was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and sequencing of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region of formalin-fixed tissues. The lack of baseline information on Florida manatees' exposure to this pathogen prompted a study into the seroprevalence of T. gondii in 2 separate geographic habitats in Florida, USA, during the winters from 2011-2014. Serum was collected during routine health assessments of 44 apparently healthy manatees from Crystal River (n = 26) on the west central coast of Florida and Brevard County (n = 18) on the east coast of Florida. Serum was screened for detection of T. gondii immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies via the modified agglutination test. Two animals from Crystal River from 2011 and 2012 (7.7%) and one animal from Brevard County from 2011 (5.6%) tested positive for T. gondii antibodies. Overall seroprevalence for T. gondii was low in the 2 sampled populations and may reflect a low seroprevalence or animal susceptibility. However, continued monitoring of this pathogen in aquatic ecosystems is warranted due to both possible anthropogenic sources and zoonotic potential.

Protozoal infections have been widely documented in marine mammals and may cause morbidity and mortality at levels that result in population level effects. The presence and potential impact on the recovery of endangered Hawaiian monk seals Neomonachus schauins- landi by protozoal pathogens was first identified in the carcass of a stranded adult male with dis- seminated toxoplasmosis and a captive monk seal with hepatitis. We report 7 additional cases and 2 suspect cases of protozoal-related mortality in Hawaiian monk seals between 2001 and 2015, including the first record of vertical transmission in this species. This study establishes case defi- nitions for classification of protozoal infections in Hawaiian monk seals. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry were the primary diagnostic modalities used to define cases, given that these analyses establish a direct link between disease and pathogen presence. Findings were sup- ported by serology and molecular data when available. Toxoplasma gondii was the predominant apicomplexan parasite identified and was associated with 100% of mortalities (n = 8) and 50% of suspect cases (n = 2). Incidental identification of sarcocysts in the skeletal muscle without tissue inflammation occurred in 4 seals, including one co-infected with T. gondii. In 2015, 2 cases of toxo - plasmosis were identified ante-mortem and shared similar clinical findings, including hematolog- ical abnormalities and histopathology. Protozoal-related mortalities, specifically due to toxoplas- mosis, are emerging as a threat to the recovery of this endangered pinniped and other native Hawaiian taxa. By establishing case definitions, this study provides a foundation for measuring the impact of these diseases on Hawaiian monk seals.

An adult male pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) stranded alive at a beach in Florida, US, in 2016. Main postmortem examination findings included bilateral multifocal variably sized renal cysts, focal renal cystadenoma, and mild dilation of the renal pelvises. The role of these renal lesions in the stranding of this whale is unknown.

Strain 2327T, first cultured from vertebral abscesses of green iguanas (Iguana iguana) collected in Florida, USA, was readily distinguished from all previously described mollicutes by 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons. Strain 2327T lacks a cell wall, ferments glucose, does not hydrolyse arginine, aesculin or urea and is sensitive to digitonin. Western blots distinguished the novel isolate serologically from the most closely related members of the Mycoplasma neurolyticum cluster. On the basis of these data, the isolate represents a novel species for which the name Mycoplasma iguanae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is strain 2327T (=ATCC BAA-1050T=NCTC 11745T).

Significant concern has been generated about the susceptibility of captive lemurs to iron storage disease, which has led some researchers to propose husbandry changes regarding dietary iron. In the current study we sought to determine the history, severity, and prevalence of iron storage disease within a large captive lemur population. Iron concentration and hemosiderin accumulation in a target organ, the liver, were assessed in necropsy specimens from 15 different species (n=153) of lemurs over a 12-yr period at the Duke University Primate Center. Banked liver tissue was used to quantify liver iron concentration (LIC) via neutron activation analysis (NAA). Prussian blue staining was used to accentuate the presence of liver iron for evaluation using an established scoring system. Of the 153 reports examined, 49 (32%) of the animals were considered positive for the presence of hemosiderin in the liver, lymph node, duodenum, and kidney, with 36 of the 49 (73%) showing deposition of iron in the liver. Total iron scores (TIS) ranged from 0.3 ± 0.3 in Lemur catta to 33.3±1.7 in Cheirogaleus medius. The mean LIC ranged from 209±1.4 µg/g wet weight in L. catta to 2957±414 µg/g in C. medius. Management practices may have contributed to some of the results observed in this study. Although evidence of excess iron deposition in the liver was present across several species studied, the levels were not as pervasive as previously reported in other captive lemur populations. Hemochromatosis was not observed, and excess iron was not related to the cause of death in any of the animals studied. The current findings suggest that iron overload in lemurs may be more complex than was previously believed. Am. J. Primatol. 68:369–381, 2006. © 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

In the 1980s, alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) of Lake Apopka (Florida, USA) underwent a population decline associated with decreased egg viability, effects that have been associated with endocrine-disrupting, persistent organochlorine pesticides. It is currently unknown whether the decreased egg viability is due to fertilization failure or early embryonic death. Therefore, we conducted a preliminary study to evaluate the use of microsatellite DNA loci to determine the fertilization status of nonviable eggs. Using microsatellite analysis, we compared genotypes from blasto-disks and embryos with the genotypes from females trapped at the nest. Four of five nonviable egg samples tested yielded evidence of fertilization. No evidence of unfertilized eggs was obtained, but amplifiable DNA could not be obtained from one entirely nonviable clutch. Thus, we demonstrate that early embryonic mortality in alligators can be detected by microsatellite analysis, but also suggest substantial effort is needed to improve the recovery of DNA and amplification of alligator microsatellite loci.

Proliferative, papillary vulvitis was identified in 16 of 34 (47%) free-ranging and captive female Florida panthers (Puma concolor coryi) monitored over a period from 1983-98. Gross lesions were characterized by extensive papilliferous proliferation in the mucosa of the vestibulum vaginae. Within lesions, the mean length and width of vestibular papillae were 1.07 +/- 0.39 mm (CV = 36%) and 0.55 +/- 0.11 mm (CV = 20%) respectively. Histologically, three to 12 layers of non-cornified stratified squamous epithelium with various degrees of basal cell spongiosis and rete ridge formation covered fibrous papillae. Mixed leukocytic mucosal inflammation also was observed. Infectious organisms were not observed, and immunohistochemical testing for the presence of papillomavirus antigens in specimens from seven panthers was negative. Lesions in nearly all of the panthers were first observed during a six-year period (1986-92), with one each in 1983, 1996 and 1998. There were no significant differences between the number of females having litters, the number of litters between age-matched and interval-matched females, and the interval between litters among lesions positive and lesion negative females over the 15 yr period. The severity of lesions did not appear to differ between parous and nulliparous free-ranging lesion-positive females. The cause of proliferative vulvitis remains unknown. However, the lesion did not appear to have a significant effect on reproduction.

Cytauxzoon felis is a long-recognized hemoparasite of free-ranging Florida panthers (Puma concolor coryi), but its prevalence and effect on the population has not been assessed. Red blood cell indices and white blood cell counts were compared between infected and noninfected Florida panthers and Texas cougars (Puma concolor stanleyana) from 1983-1997 in Florida (USA). The prevalence of cytauxzoonosis for both populations was 39% (11/28) for Texas cougars, 35% for Florida panthers (22/63) and 36% overall. Thirteen hematologic parameters were compared between C. felis positive and negative panthers and cougars. Florida panthers had significantly lower mean cell hemoglobin count (MCHC) and higher white blood cell (WBC), neutrophil, monocyte and eosinophil counts (Por = 0.05) than Texas cougars. Infected Florida panthers had significantly lower mean cell hemoglobin (MCH) and monocyte counts and higher neutrophil and eosinophil counts than infected Texas cougars. Although statistically significant differences were measured for hematologic parameters in C. felis positive panthers and cougars, biologically significant differences were not likely because values were generally within expected reference ranges for healthy animals. Cytauxzoonosis does not appear to have a negative effect on the hematologic parameters of chronically infected panthers and cougars. Potential transient changes during initial infection were not evaluated.

A marked increase in the frequency of harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) stranded in North Carolina in 2005 was declared as an Unusual Mortality Event (UME). Strandings occurred in January through May when harbor porpoises are seasonally present. Increased stranding rates were measured relative to a threshold to determine that the UME was occurring. The threshold analysis also revealed elevated strandings during 1999, an undeclared UME year. Recovered carcasses during 1999 and 2005 accounted for 39% of 261 strandings during 1997–2009. During 2005, of 43 strandings, primary or secondary causes of mortality included fishery interactions, emaciation, and interspecific aggression. Apart from small but significant differences in timing and condition of strandings, composition of strandings during UME and non-UME years was similar, with most being young-of-the-year and occurring during March and April, north of Cape Hatteras. Porpoises had high levels of parasitic infestation typical for this species. However, no indication of infectious disease and no cause of the 2005 event were found from gross and histologic findings. Response to UMEs is challenging, particularly along the expanses of North Carolina beaches, requiring additional effort to obtain carcasses in sufficiently fresh condition to determine the cause of these events.

A chronically entangled North Atlantic right whale, with consequent emaciation was sedated, disentangled to the extent possible, administered antibiotics, and satellite tag tracked for six subsequent days. It was found dead 11 d after the tag ceased transmission. Chronic constrictive deep rope lacerations and emaciation were found to be the proximate cause of death, which may have ultimately involved shark predation. A broadhead cutter and a spring-loaded knife used for disentanglement were found to induce moderate wounds to the skin and blubber. The telemetry tag, with two barbed shafts partially penetrating the blubber was shed, leaving barbs embedded with localized histological reaction. One of four darts administered shed the barrel, but the needle was found postmortem in the whale with an 80o bend at the blubber-muscle interface. This bend occurred due to epaxial muscle movement relative to the overlying blubber, with resultant necrosis and cavitation of underlying muscle. This suggests that rigid, implanted devices that span the cetacean blubber muscle interface, where the muscle moves relative to the blubber, could have secondary health impacts. Thus we encourage efforts to develop new tag telemetry systems that do not penetrate the subdermal sheath, but still remain attached for many months.

Understanding the scenarios whereby fishing gear entanglement of large whales induces mortality is important for the development of mitiga- tion strategies. Here we present a series of 21 cases involving 4 species of baleen whales in the NW Atlantic, describing the available sighting history, necropsy observations, and subsequent data analyses that enabled the compilation of the manners in which entanglement can be lethal. The single acute cause of entanglement mortality identified was drowning from entanglement involving multiple body parts, with the animal's inability to surface. More protracted causes of death included impaired foraging during entangle- ment, resulting in starvation after many months; sys- temic infection arising from open, unresolved entan- glement wounds; and hemorrhage or debilitation due to severe gear-related damage to tissues. Serious gear-induced injury can include laceration of large vessels, occlusion of the nares, embedding of line in growing bone, and massive periosteal proliferation of new bone in an attempt to wall off constricting, encir- cling lines. These data show that baleen whale entan- glement is not only a major issue for the conservation of some baleen whale populations, but is also a major concern for the welfare of each affected individual.

Necropsy of an Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) neonate that stranded dead on Folly Beach, Charleston County, South Carolina, USA, on 17 November 2007, revealed multiple congenital heart malformations. Cardiac anomalies included a hypertrophic right ventricle, ventricular septal defect (VSD), aortic dilation, atrial septal defect (ASD) between a functionally common atrium and a left atrial remnant, subvalvular pulmonic stenosis, and a hypoplastic pulmonary artery and mitral valve. Few incidences of abnormal cardiac development in cetaceans have been published. The case study serves to document a novel congenital heart malformation not previously reported, to our knowledge, in free-ranging bottlenose dolphins.

An adult male Blainville's beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) was found stranded on the Atlantic coast of the USA on 28 January 2004. Necropsy revealed a focal papilloma-like penile lesion, the cells from which revealed single 4-6 microm basophilic intranuclear inclusions. Total DNA extracted from lesion material was tested using a pan-herpes-virus PCR assay that targets the DNA polymerase gene and found to be positive. When the amplified DNA fragment was cloned, sequenced, and compared to GenBank-deposited herpesvirus DNA polymerase sequences, the detected virus was determined to be a distinct member of the Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily of herpesviruses. This new virus, tentatively named Ziphiid herpesvirus type 1, was associated with but not determined to be the cause of genital disease in the Blainville's beaked whale.

Massive urolithiasis of the penile urethra was observed in an adult pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) stranded on Topsail Island, North Carolina, USA. Calculi occupied the urethra from just distal to the sigmoid flexure to the tip of the penis for a length of 43 cm. A urethral diverticulum was present proximal to the calculi. The major portion of the multinodular urolith weighed 208 g and was 16 cm long x 3.7 cm diameter at the widest point. The urolith was composed of 100% struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) and on culture yielded Klebsiella oxytoca, a urease-positive bacterium occasionally associated with struvite urolith formation in domestic animals. Reaction to the calculi was characterized histologically by moderate multifocal to coalescing plasmacytic balanitis and penile urethritis. Role of the urethrolithiasis in the whale's stranding is speculative but could have involved pain or metabolic perturbations such as uremia or hyperammonemia.

Serum samples from 28 free-ranging Florida panthers (Puma concolor coryi) and seven mountain lions from Texas (P. concolor stanleyana) living in south Florida (USA) between 1997 to 1998 were tested for antibodies to Bartonella henselae. Twenty percent (7/35) of the samples were reactive to B. henselae antisera with a subspecies prevalence of 18% (5/ 28) for Florida panthers and 28% (2/7) for cougars from Texas (USA). There was not a significant sex related difference in infection rates among the Florida panthers. Antibody prevalence was higher in panthers2-yr of age (40%) compared to panthers2-yr (13%). Compared to studies of antibody prevalence in mountain lions (P. concolor) from California (USA), overall seroprevalence was lower as was prevalence in panthers2-yr-old. However, the seroprevalence in animals2-yr from southern Florida was similar to prevalences reported in mountain lions or domestic felids in California.