Search

Conservation managers are under increasing pressure to make decisions about the allocation of finite resources to protect biodiversity under a changing climate. However, the impacts of climate and global change drivers on species are outpacing our capacity to collect the empirical data necessary to inform these decisions. This is particularly the case in the Australian Alps which have already undergone recent changes in climate and experienced more frequent large‐scale bushfires. In lieu of empirical data, we use a structured expert elicitation method (the IDEA protocol) to estimate the change in abundance and distribution of nine vegetation groups and 89 Australian alpine and subalpine species by the year 2050. Experts predicted that most alpine vegetation communities would decline in extent by 2050; only woodlands and heathlands are predicted to increase in extent. Predicted species‐level responses for alpine plants and animals were highly variable and uncertain. In general, alpine plants spanned the range of possible responses, with some expected to increase, decrease or not change in cover. By contrast, almost all animal species are predicted to decline or not change in abundance or elevation range; more species with water‐centric life‐cycles are expected to decline in abundance than other species. While long‐term ecological data will always be the gold standard for informing the future of biodiversity, the method and outcomes outlined here provide a pragmatic and coherent basis upon which to start informing conservation policy and management in the face of rapid change and a paucity of data., Experts predicted that most Australian alpine plant communities would decline in extent by 2050; only woodlands and heathlands are predicted to increase. Alpine plants spanned the range of possible responses, with some expected to increase, decrease or not change in cover. By contrast, animal species are predicted to decline or not change in abundance or elevation range. While long‐term ecological data will always be the gold‐standard for informing the future of biodiversity, structured expert elicitation provides a pragmatic and coherent basis upon which to inform conservation policy and management in the face of rapid change and a paucity of data.

Extreme abiotic conditions, geographic isolation, and low levels of disturbance have historically provided alpine, Arctic, and Antarctic regions with low input of and relative resistance to the introduction of new species. However, the climate is warming rapidly, concomitant with intense and diversified types of human influence in these cold environments. Consequently, many plant species, both native and nonnative, are now moving or expanding their ranges to higher elevations and latitudes, creating new species interactions and assemblages that challenge biodiversity conservation. Based on our synthesis, many of the same nonnative species invade multiple cold environments, and many more could move up or over from adjoining warmer areas. Transportation networks and the disturbances associated with burgeoning development are responsible for many movements. Prevention and monitoring for nonnative plant species is of paramount importance, and management should be directed toward species that negatively impact ecosystem function or human well-being. Management of native range shifters is more complicated; most movements will be desirable, but some may be locally undesirable. Overall, plant movements into alpine, arctic, and Antarctic areas are going to increase, and management will need to be adaptive because species movements and assemblages of the past will not reflect those of the future. ISSN:1523-0430 ISSN:1938-4246

Prevention is regarded as a cost-effective management action to avoid unwanted impacts of non-native species. However, targeted prevention can be difficult if little is known about the traits of successfully invading non-native species or habitat characteristics that make native vegetation more resistant to invasion. Here, we surveyed mountain roads in seven regions worldwide, to investigate whether different species traits are beneficial during primary invasion (i.e. spread of non-native species along roadside dispersal corridors) and secondary invasion (i.e. percolation from roadsides into natural adjacent vegetation), and to determine if particular habitat characteristics increase biotic resistance to invasion. We found primary invasion up mountain roads tends to be by longer lived, non-ruderal species without seed dispersal traits. For secondary invasion, we demonstrate that both traits of the non-native species and attributes of the receiving natural vegetation contribute to the extent of invasion. Non-native species that invade natural adjacent vegetation tend to be shade and moisture tolerant. Furthermore, non-native species invasion was greater when the receiving vegetation was similarly rich in native species. Our results show how mountain roads define which non-native species are successful; first by favouring certain traits in mountain roadsides (the key dispersal pathway to the top), and secondly by requiring a different set of traits when species invade the natural adjacent vegetation. While patterns in species traits were observed at a global level, regional abiotic and biotic variables largely generated region-specific levels of response, suggesting that management should be regionally driven. Fil: McDougall, Keith. La Trobe University; Australia. Office of Environment and Heritage; Australia Fil: Lembrechts, Jonas. Universiteit Antwerp; Bélgica Fil: Rew, Lisa J.. State University of Montana; Estados Unidos Fil: Haider, Sylvia. Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg; Alemania. German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research; Alemania Fil: Cavieres, Lohengrin A.. Universidad de Concepción; Chile Fil: Kueffer, Christoph. Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad; Chile. Institute of Integrative Biology; Suiza Fil: Milbau, Ann. Research Institute for Nature and Forest; Bélgica Fil: Naylor, Bridgett J.. United States Department of Agriculture; Estados Unidos Fil: Nuñez, Martin Andres. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Centro Regional Universidad Bariloche. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente; Argentina Fil: Pauchard, Anibal. Universidad de Concepción; Chile. Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad; Chile Fil: Seipel, Tim. State University of Montana; Estados Unidos Fil: Speziale, Karina Lilian. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Centro Regional Universidad Bariloche. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente; Argentina Fil: Wright, Genevieve T.. Office of Environment and Heritage; Australia Fil: Alexander, Jake M.. Universite de Lausanne; Suiza

Phytophthora species are associated with disease in horticulture, agriculture and natural vegetation worldwide but are not well known in cold areas. In Australia, alpine regions have been regarded as unsuitable for the survival and disease expression of Phytophthora cinnamomi, which has caused catastrophic damage to vegetation in other parts of the country. Phytophthora cambivora, on the other hand, has been detected recently in the roots of an endemic alpine shrub (Nematolepis ovatifolia) and may already be exerting pressure on alpine vegetation. We conducted glasshouse susceptibility trials on nine Australian alpine and subalpine shrub species to P. cambivora and P. cinnamomi. The pathogens were re-isolated from the roots of most test species but for some species, few replicates were infected and few died. One species (Phebalium squamulosum) was regarded as highly susceptible with most plants in inoculated pots dying and both pathogens being commonly isolated from roots. The climatic conditions of most populations of the test species are currently unsuitable for disease expression from P. cinnamomi. However, the projected change in temperature in the Australian Alps with climate change will expose most populations of eight of the species to P. cinnamomi activity by 2070. Pathogens are likely to be important drivers of future vegetation in many mountainous areas which are currently not within their range of survival and pathogenesis. Management of these areas should include hygiene and pathogen monitoring, and minimise disturbances that heighten stress for susceptible species.

Hibbertia circinata K.L.McDougall & G.T.Wright is described as new to accommodate a rare, geographically restricted species in subsection Subsessiles of sect. Hibbertia. It is compared with H. linearis DC. and H. saligna DC., and its ecology and conservation status are discussed.

Globally, Phytophthora cinnamomi is listed as one of the 100 worst invasive alien species and active management is required to reduce impact and prevent spread in both horticulture and natural ecosystems. Conversely, there are regions thought to be suitable for the pathogen where no disease is observed. We developed a climex model for the global distribution of P. cinnamomi based on the pathogen's response to temperature and moisture and by incorporating extensive empirical evidence on the presence and absence of the pathogen. The climex model captured areas of climatic suitability where P. cinnamomi occurs that is congruent with all available records. The model was validated by the collection of soil samples from asymptomatic vegetation in areas projected to be suitable by the model for which there were few records. DNA was extracted, and the presence or absence of P. cinnamomi was determined by high-throughput sequencing (HTS). While not detected using traditional isolation methods, HTS detected P. cinnamomi at higher elevations in eastern Australia and central Tasmania as projected by the climex model. Further support for the climex model was obtained using the large data set from south-west Australia where the proportion of positive records in an area is related to the Ecoclimatic Index value for the same area. We provide for the first time a comprehensive global map of the current P. cinnamomi distribution, an improved climex model of the distribution, and a projection to 2080 of the distribution with predicted climate change. This information provides the basis for more detailed regional-scale modelling and supports risk assessment for governments to plan management of this important soil-borne plant pathogen.

Aim: We investigated patterns of species richness and community dissimilarity along elevation gradients using globally replicated, standardized surveys of vascular plants. We asked how these patterns of diversity are influenced by anthropogenic pressures (road construction and non-native species). Location: Global. Time period: 2008–2015. Major taxa studied: Vascular plants. Methods: Native and non-native vascular plant species were recorded in 943 plots along 25 elevation gradients, in nine mountain regions, on four continents. Sampling took place in plots along and away from roads. We analysed the effects of elevation and distance from road on species richness patterns and community dissimilarity (beta-diversity), and assessed how non-native species modified such elevational diversity patterns. Results: Globally, native and total species richness showed a unimodal relationship with elevation that peaked at lower-mid elevations, but these patterns were altered along roads and due to non-native species. Differences in elevational species richness patterns between regions disappeared along roadsides, and non-native species changed the patterns’ character in all study regions. Community dissimilarity was reduced along roadsides and through non-native species. We also found a significant elevational decay of beta-diversity, which however was not affected by roads or non-native species. Main conclusions: Idiosyncratic native species richness patterns in plots away from roads implicate region-specific mechanisms underlying these patterns. However, along roadsides a clearer elevational signal emerged and species richness mostly peaked at mid-elevations. We conclude that both roads and non-native species lead to a homogenization of species richness patterns and plant communities in mountains. Fil: Haider, Sylvia. Martin Luther University; Alemania. German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research; Alemania Fil: Kueffer, Christoph. Institute of Integrative Biology; Suiza. Stellenbosch University; Sudáfrica Fil: Bruelheide, Helge. Martin Luther University; Alemania. German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research; Alemania Fil: Seipel, Tim. State University of Montana; Estados Unidos Fil: Alexander, Jake M.. Universite de Lausanne; Suiza Fil: Rew, Lisa J.. Universite de Lausanne; Suiza Fil: Arévalo, José Ramón. Universidad de La Laguna; España Fil: Cavieres, Lohengrin A.. Universidad de Concepción; Chile Fil: McDougall, Keith L.. National Parks and Wildlife Service; Australia. La Trobe University; Australia Fil: Milbau, Ann. Research Institute for Nature and Forest; Bélgica Fil: Naylor, Bridgett J.. Forestry and Range Sciences Lab; Estados Unidos Fil: Speziale, Karina Lilian. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Centro Regional Universidad Bariloche. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente; Argentina. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Centro Regional Universitario Bariloche. Laboratorio de Ecotono; Argentina Fil: Pauchard, Aníbal. Universidad de Concepción; Chile

Rapid climatic changes and increasing human influence at high elevations around the world will have profound impacts on mountain biodiversity. However, forecasts from statistical models (e.g. species distribution models) rarely consider that plant community changes could substantially lag behind climatic changes, hindering our ability to make temporally realistic projections for the coming century. Indeed, the magnitudes of lags, and the relative importance of the different factors giving rise to them, remain poorly understood. We review evidence for three types of lag: “dispersal lags” affecting plant species’ spread along elevational gradients, “establishment lags” following their arrival in recipient communities, and “extinction lags” of resident species. Variation in lags is explained by variation among species in physiological and demographic responses, by effects of altered biotic interactions, and by aspects of the physical environment. Of these, altered biotic interactions could contribute substantially to establishment and extinction lags, yet impacts of biotic interactions on range dynamics are poorly understood. We develop a mechanistic community model to illustrate how species turnover in future communities might lag behind simple expectations based on species’ range shifts with unlimited dispersal. The model shows a combined contribution of altered biotic interactions and dispersal lags to plant community turnover along an elevational gradient following climate warming. Our review and simulation support the view that accounting for disequilibrium range dynamics will be essential for realistic forecasts of patterns of biodiversity under climate change, with implications for the conservation of mountain species and the ecosystem functions they provide. Fil: Alexander, Jake M.. Universite de Lausanne; Suiza. ETH Zurich; Suiza Fil: Chalmandrier, Loïc. Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL; Suiza. ETH Zurich; Suiza Fil: Lenoir, Jonathan. Universite de Picardie Jules Verne; Francia Fil: Burgess, Treena I.. Murdoch University; Australia Fil: Essl, Franz. Universidad de Viena; Austria Fil: Haider, Sylvia. Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg; Alemania Fil: Kueffer, Christoph. ETH Zurich; Suiza Fil: McDougall, Keith. La Trobe University; Australia Fil: Milbau, Ann. Research Institute for Nature and Forest; Bélgica Fil: Nuñez, Martin Andres. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Centro Regional Universidad Bariloche. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente; Argentina Fil: Pauchard, Aníbal. Universidad de Concepción; Chile Fil: Rabitsch, Wolfgang. Environment Agency Austria; Austria Fil: Rew, Lisa J.. State University of Montana; Estados Unidos Fil: Sanders, Nathan J.. The Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory; Estados Unidos. University of Vermont; Estados Unidos. Natural History Museum of Denmark; Dinamarca Fil: Pellissier, Loïc. ETH Zurich; Suiza. Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL; Suiza

Roads are known to act as corridors for dispersal of plant species. With their variable microclimate, role as corridors for species movement and reoccurring disturbance events, they show several characteristics that might influence range dynamics of both native and non-native species. Previous research on plant species ranges in mountains however seldom included the effects of roads. To study how ranges of native and non-native species differ between roads and adjacent vegetation, we used a global dataset of plant species composition along mountain roads. We compared average elevation and range width of species, and used generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) to compile their range optimum and amplitude. We then explored differences between roadside and adjacent plots based on a species? origin (native vs non-native) and nitrogen and temperature affinity. Most non-native species had on average higher elevational ranges and broader amplitudes in roadsides. Higher optima for non-native species were associated with high nitrogen and temperature affinity. While lowland native species showed patterns comparable to those in non-native species, highland native species had significantly lower elevational ranges in roadsides compared to the adjacent vegetation. We conclude that roadsides indeed change the elevational ranges of a variety of species. These changes are not limited to the expansion of non-native species along mountain roads, but also include both upward and downward changes in ranges of native species. Roadsides may thus facilitate upward range shifts, for instance related to climate change, and they could serve as corridors to facilitate migration of alpine species between adjacent high-elevation areas. We recommend including the effects of mountain roads in species distribution models to fine-tune the predictions of range changes in a warming climate. Fil: Lembrechts, Jonas. Universiteit Antwerp; Bélgica Fil: Alexander, Jake. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich; Suiza Fil: Cavieres, Lohengrin. Universidad de Concepción; Chile Fil: Haider, Sylvia. Martin-Luther Universität Halle-Wittenberg; Alemania. German Centre For Integrative Biodiversity Research.; Alemania Fil: Lenoir, Jonathan. Université de Picardie Jules Verne; Francia Fil: Kueffer, Christoph. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich; Suiza Fil: McDougall, Keith. La Trobe University; Australia Fil: Naylor, Bridgett. United States Department of Agriculture; Estados Unidos Fil: Nuñez, Martin Andres. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Centro Regional Universidad Bariloche. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente; Argentina Fil: Pauchard, Aníbal. Universidad de Concepción; Chile Fil: Rew, Lisa. State University of Montana; Estados Unidos Fil: Nijs, Ivan. Universiteit Antwerp; Bélgica Fil: Milbau, Ann. Universidad de Umea; Suecia. Research Institute for Nature and Forest; Bélgica

Aim We evaluated whether the performance of individuals and populations of the invasive plant Verbascum thapsus differs between its native and non-native ranges, across climate gradients, and in response to its position in a global-scaled niche model. Location India (Kashmir) and Switzerland (native range) and Australia and USA (Hawaii, Montana and Oregon) (non-native range). Methods We measured population characteristics (density of flowering individuals, population size), plant traits (plant height, number of flowering branches) and seed germination for 50 populations of V. thapsus growing along elevational gradients in six mountain regions around the world (two in the native range, and four in the non-native range). We fitted linear regression models to determine the relationship of plant and population level performance variables to range, region, climate and probability of occurrence from a global niche model. Results Plant height, number of flowering branches and population density of V. thapsus did not differ consistently between the native and non-native ranges, but the area covered by populations in the non-native range was on average two orders of magnitude larger than the area of native populations. Within and among regions, individual plant performance traits responded variably to precipitation and mean annual temperature, depending on the climatic range of the observed populations; however, performance was greater for populations that had a greater modelled probability of occurrence. Seed germination under controlled conditions was highest between 20 and 35 °C and consistent across populations, although germination at low temperatures was substantially higher for native populations from Kashmir. Main conclusions The introduction of V. thapsus to its non-native range is not associated with consistent increases in plant performance. Instead, plant performance is more strongly influenced by position within the climate niche of the species, position along environmental gradients, and climatic or other differences among regions. We demonstrate that individual-level and population-level performance traits can yield different predictors of plant performance. Therefore, future studies comparing plant performance in native and non-native ranges should include both plant and population characteristics and should also sample the target species from multiple regions in both ranges and along environmental gradients that comprehensively represent the niche of the species.

Background and aims The association of clonality, polyploidy and reduced fecundity has been identified as an extinction risk for clonal plants. Compromised sexual reproduction limits both their ability to adapt to new conditions and their capacity to disperse to more favourable environments. Grevillea renwickiana is a prostrate, putatively sterile shrub reliant on asexual reproduction. Dispersal is most likely limited by the rate of clonal expansion via rhizomes. The nine localized populations constituting this species provide an opportunity to examine the extent of clonality and spatial genotypic diversity to evaluate its evolutionary prospects. Methods Ten microsatellite loci were used to compare genetic and genotypic diversity across all sites with more intensive sampling at four locations (n = 185). The spatial distribution of genotypes and chloroplast DNA haplotypes based on the trnQ-rps16 intergenic spacer region were compared. Chromosome counts provided a basis for examining genetic profiles inconsistent with diploidy. Key results Microsatellite analysis identified 46 multilocus genotypes (MLGs) in eight multilocus clonal lineages (MLLs). MLLs are not shared among sites, with two exceptions. Spatial autocorrelation was significant to 1·6 km. Genotypic richness ranged from 0 to 0·33. Somatic mutation is likely to contribute to minor variation between MLGs within clonal lineages. The eight chloroplast haplotypes identified were correlated with eight MLLs defined by ordination and generally restricted to single populations. Triploidy is the most likely reason for tri-allelic patterns. Conclusions Grevillea renwickiana comprises few genetic individuals. Sterility has most likely been induced by triploidy. Extensive lateral suckering in long-lived sterile clones facilitates the accumulation of somatic mutations, which contribute to the measured genetic diversity. Genetic conservation value may not be a function of population size. Despite facing evolutionary stagnation, sterile clonal species can play a vital role in mitigating ecological instability as floras respond to rapid environmental change.

Mountain ecosystems have been less adversely affected by invasions of non-native plants than most other ecosystems, partially because most invasive plants in the lowlands are limited by climate and cannot grow under harsher high-elevation conditions. However, with ongoing climate change, invasive species may rapidly move upwards and threaten mid-, and then high-elevation mountain ecosystems. We evaluated this threat by modeling the current and future habitat suitability for 48 invasive plant species in Switzerland and New South Wales, Australia. Both regions had contrasting climate interactions with elevation, resulting in possible different responses of species distributions to climate change. Using a species distribution modeling approach that combines data from two spatial scales, we built high-resolution species distribution models (≤ 250 m) that account for the global climatic niche of species and also finer variables depicting local climate and disturbances. We found that different environmental drivers limit the elevation range of invasive species in each of the two regions, leading to region-specific species responses to climate change. The optimal suitability for plant invaders is predicted to markedly shift from the lowland to the montane or subalpine zone in Switzerland, whereas the upward shift is far less pronounced in New South Wales where montane and subalpine elevations are already suitable. The results suggest that species most likely to invade high elevations in Switzerland will be cold-tolerant, whereas species with an affinity to moist soils are most likely to invade higher elevations in Australia. Other plant traits were only marginally associated with elevation limits. These results demonstrate that a more systematic consideration of future distributions of invasive species is required in conservation plans of not yet invaded mountainous ecosystems.

Cold environments at high elevation and high latitude are often viewed as resistant to biological invasions. However, climate warming, land use change and associated increased connectivity all increase the risk of biological invasions in these environments. Here we present a summary of the key discussions of the workshop ‘Biosecurity in Mountains and Northern Ecosystems: Current Status and Future Challenges’ (Flen, Sweden, 1–3 June 2015). The aims of the workshop were to (1) increase awareness about the growing importance of species expansion—both non-native and native—at high elevation and high latitude with climate change, (2) review existing knowledge about invasion risks in these areas, and (3) encourage more research on how species will move and interact in cold environments, the consequences for biodiversity, and animal and human health and wellbeing. The diversity of potential and actual invaders reported at the workshop and the likely interactions between them create major challenges for managers of cold environments. However, since these cold environments have experienced fewer invasions when compared with many warmer, more populated environments, prevention has a real chance of success, especially if it is coupled with prioritisation schemes for targeting invaders likely to have greatest impact. Communication and co-operation between cold environment regions will facilitate rapid response, and maximise the use of limited research and management resources. Fil: Pauchard, Aníbal. Instituto de Ecologia y Biodiversidad; Chile. Universidad de Concepción; Chile Fil: Milbau, Ann. Umeå University; Suecia. Research Institute for Nature and Forest; Belice Fil: Albihn, Ann. National Veterinary Institute; Suecia. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences; Suecia Fil: Alexander, Jake. Institute of Integrative Biology; Suiza Fil: Burgess, Treena. Murdoch University; Australia Fil: Daehler, Curtis. University of Hawaii; Estados Unidos Fil: Englund, Göran. Umeå University; Suecia Fil: Essl, Franz. Universidad de Viena; Austria. Environment Agency Austria; Austria Fil: Evengård, Birgitta. Umeå University; Suecia Fil: Greenwood, Gregory B.. University of Bern; Suiza Fil: Haider, Sylvia. University Halle-Wittenberg; Alemania. German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research; Alemania Fil: Lenoir, Jonathan. Université de Picardie Jules Verne; Francia Fil: McDougall, Keith. La Trobe University; Australia Fil: Muths, Erin. Fort Collins Science Center; Alemania Fil: Nuñez, Martin Andres. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente. Universidad Nacional del Comahue. Centro Regional Universidad Bariloche. Instituto de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Medioambiente; Argentina Fil: Olofsson, Johan. Umeå University; Suecia Fil: Pellissier, Loic. Institute of Terrestrial Ecosystems; Suiza. Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL; Suiza Fil: Rabitsch, Wolfgang. Environment Agency Austria; Austria Fil: Rew, Lisa J.. State University of Montana; Estados Unidos Fil: Robertson, Mark. University of Pretoria; Sudáfrica Fil: Sanders, Nathan. Universidad de Copenhagen; Dinamarca Fil: Kueffer, Christoph. Institute of Integrative Biology; Suiza. Stellenbosch University; Sudáfrica

Recent years have seen a surge of interest in understanding patterns and processes of plant invasions into mountains. Here, we synthesise current knowledge about the spread of non-native plants along elevation gradients, emphasising the current status and impacts that these species have in alpine ecosystems. Globally, invasions along elevation gradients are influenced by propagule availability, environmental constraints on population growth, evolutionary change and biotic interactions. The highest elevations are so far relatively free from non-native plants. Nonetheless, in total nearly 200 non-native plant species have been recorded from alpine environments around the world. However, we identified only three species as specifically cold-adapted, with the overwhelming majority having their centres of distribution under warmer environments, and few have substantial impacts on native communities. A combination of low propagule availability and low invasibility likely explain why alpine environments host few non-native plants relative to lowland ecosystems. However, experiences in some areas demonstrate that alpine ecosystems are not inherently resistant to invasions. Furthermore, they will face increasing pressure from the introduction of pre-adapted species, climate change, and the range expansion of native species, which are already causing concern in some areas. Nonetheless, because they are still relatively free from non-native plants, preventative action could be an effective way to limit future impacts of invasions in alpine environments.

Developing an understanding of the impact of climate on Australia's alpine flora is critical in anticipating the impacts of climate change. The dendroclimatological analysis of the Australian mainland's only alpine conifer, Podocarpus lawrencei Hook.f., may have particular significance in this regard. Unfortunately, eccentric tree-ring widths and frequent ring wedging have previously prevented dendroclimatic investigation of the species using core samples. In this study, we overcome this limitation by using full stem cross-sections collected from individuals killed during wildfire in 2003. Despite this advantage, ring wedging and poor circuit uniformity meant that crossdating was successful for portions or complete sections of only 56% of samples. Nevertheless, we constructed a crossdated chronology spanning 114-years (1888–2001) – the first for P. lawrencei. Climatological analysis revealed significant positive correlations with air temperature during spring of the growing season and significant negative correlations with monthly and seasonal snow variables as well as spring precipitation. Further analyses using 50-year moving windows reveal that responses to minimum air temperature and precipitation are unstable and periodically non-significant. Nevertheless, whilst correlation with mean maximum temperature during October and November (spring) of the growing season as well as the seasonal integration of snow cover exhibits variability throughout the analysis period, this variability appears to be independent of trends in both mean temperature and snow cover. We conclude, given the species longevity, its sensitivity to climate as well as the availability of sample material throughout the Australian Alps, that P. lawrencei holds a hitherto unrealised potential for climate reconstruction in south-east Australia. Further dendrochronological investigation of the species is currently underway throughout the Australian Alps to exploit this potential.

Aim To investigate how species richness and similarity of non-native plants varies along gradients of elevation and human disturbance. Location Eight mountain regions on four continents and two oceanic islands. Methods We compared the distribution of non-native plant species along roads in eight mountainous regions. Within each region, abundance of plant species was recorded at 41–84 sites along elevational gradients using 100-m 2 plots located 0, 25 and 75 m from roadsides. We used mixed-effects models to examine how local variation in species richness and similarity were affected by processes at three scales: among regions (global), along elevational gradients (regional) and with distance from the road (local). We used model selection and information criteria to choose best-fit models of species richness along elevational gradients. We performed a hierarchical clustering of similarity to investigate human-related factors and environmental filtering as potential drivers at the global scale. Results Species richness and similarity of non-native plant species along elevational gradients were strongly influenced by factors operating at scales ranging from 100 m to 1000s of km. Non-native species richness was highest in the New World regions, reflecting the effects of colonization from Europe. Similarity among regions was low and due mainly to certain Eurasian species, mostly native to temperate Europe, occurring in all New World regions. Elevation and distance from the road explained little of the variation in similarity. The elevational distribution of non-native species richness varied, but was always greatest in the lower third of the range. In all regions, non-native species richness declined away from roadsides. In three regions, this decline was steeper at higher elevations, and there was an interaction between distance and elevation. Main conclusions Because non-native plant species are affected by processes operating at global, regional and local scales, a multi-scale perspective is needed to understand their patterns of distribution. The processes involved include global dispersal, filtering along elevational gradients and differential establishment with distance from roadsides.

Aim We use data from 13 mountain regions and surrounding lowland areas to identify (1) the origins, traits and cultural uses of alien plant species that establish in mountains, (2) the alien species that are most likely to be a threat and (3) how managers might use this information to prevent further invasions. Location Australia, Canada, Chile, India, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, USA. Methods Lists of alien species were compiled for mountains and their surrounding or nearby lowlands. Principal co-ordinates analysis was performed on a matrix of similarities created using presence/absence data for alien species. The significance of differences between means for (1) similarity metrics of lowland and mountain groups and (2) species traits of lowland and mountain alien floras was determined using t-tests. In seven of the 13 mountain regions, lists of alien species undergoing management were compiled. The significance of differences between proportions of traits for species requiring and not requiring management input was determined with chi-square tests. Results We found that the proximal lowland alien flora is the main determinant of a mountain region’s alien species composition. The highest similarities between mountain floras were in the Americas/Pacific Region. The majority of alien species commonly found in mountains have agricultural origins and are of little concern to land managers. Woody species and those used for ornamental purposes will often pose the greatest threat. Main conclusions Given the documented potential threat of alien species invading mountains, we advise natural resource managers to take preventive measures against the risk of alien plant invasion in mountains. A strategy for prevention should extend to the surrounding lowland areas and in particular regulate the introduction of species that are already of management concern in other mountains as well as climatically pre-adapted alien mountain plants. These may well become more problematic than the majority of alien plants currently in mountains.

Summary The Southern Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) is one of Australia's most critically endangered frog species. The species occurs entirely within Kosciuszko National Park, which has a history of cattle grazing (up to the 1970s). A consequence of cattle grazing has been a significant reduction in the extent of montane and sub-alpine peat-bog systems that the species uses as breeding habitat. Furthermore, climate change and associated increased wildfire frequency is expected to further reduce the extent and quality of peat bogs throughout the Australian Alps. In this study, we investigated habitat selection for breeding pools and nest sites within peat-bog systems in order to inform the conservation management of the species and guide other management practices being undertaken in peat bogs where this species occurs. Occupancy of breeding males at bog pools was found to be positively associated with increasing pool area, water depth and mid-day temperature, and negatively associated with extent of bare substrate. The majority of breeding pools identified were ephemeral. Nest sites within vegetation where males call and where females deposit their eggs were located at mid-elevations in a range of vegetation types, with the majority of nests being within moss and sedge dominated by Sphagnum cristatum and Empodisma minor. We also found that male nest sites were not randomly distributed within the edges of pools, but were more often located in areas of loose vegetation. These results highlight the potential sensitivity of the Southern Corroboree Frog to predicted changes in peat-bog systems resulting from climate change such as earlier drying and a possible reduction in the size of bog pools. A monitoring programme focused on key features of the breeding habitat should be undertaken to provide a basis for developing and assessing management actions implemented in peat bogs occupied by this species.

Summary Royal National Park, Australia's oldest national park, is a significant reserve for conservation of the flora and fauna that are characteristic of the Hawkesbury Sandstone in New South Wales. Since at least 1974, Phytophthora Root Rot (caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi) has been known to occur in the Park, but there is no knowledge of the extent of infestation or the potential impacts of the disease within the Park. This study investigated the distribution of the pathogen within Royal National Park at two scales: a systematic survey by vegetation type, and a targeted survey of populations of Waratah and Spear Grass-tree. These two species are known to be susceptible to Phytophthora Root Rot and are therefore potential indicators of the impact of the pathogen on vegetation in Royal National Park. Phytophthora cinnamomi was recovered from all vegetation types sampled but most commonly in heathland/open scrub vegetation. The pathogen was easily recovered from sites containing Spear Grass-tree, but was not isolated from any sites containing Waratah. Because of the widespread distribution of P. cinnamomi, we conclude that hygiene measures will be of little use to prevent the spread of the pathogen within Royal National Park. Monitoring of the occurrence and spread of disease symptoms in plants and applying phosphite to protect susceptible rare or threatened flora may be the most appropriate management options.

A total of 128 invasive plant species have been recorded in treeless vegetation in the Australian Alps. Most of these are forbs and most are uncommon. Cover of invasive species is generally minimal unless there has been gross disturbance to natural vegetation and soils. Although there is a significantly positive correlation between invasive and native species diversity, suggesting that conditions that allow numerous native species to co-exist also permit more plant invasions, altitude is the most important determinant of invasive species diversity. Only 22 of the 128 species have been recorded above 1800 m. Some plant communities (e.g. those with high pH or relatively nutrient-rich soils), however, seem to be vulnerable to invasions regardless of altitude. Most invasive species appear to have been introduced unintentionally (e.g. as seed attached to vehicles, animals and humans) but a few were introduced to assist with revegetation of disturbed soils and for amenity plantings in ski resorts, and have subsequently established in native vegetation. Treeless communities in the Australian Alps are likely to face increasing pressure from invasive species as a result of global warming and continued introduction of non-native plants to ski resort gardens. Whilst it may be difficult to prevent invasive species of low elevations migrating to higher elevations as temperatures rise, the risk of invasion from garden plants could be minimised through regulation. Non-native plants in ski resort gardens pose a far greater risk than most invasive species currently present in the Alps because they have been chosen for their capacity to survive at high altitudes.

Pomaderris walshii, a shrub of the Central Tablelands of New South Wales, is described and illustrated. The species is apparently restricted to the upper Kangaroo River, south-east of Robertson. It is threatened because of its small population size and possible future changes in land use, and fire and flood frequencies. As a result of morphometric analyses on P. walshii and related taxa, P. argyrophylla subsp. graniticola is raised to specific rank (as P. graniticola).

Summary Native grassland establishment works undertaken on former agricultural land at Organ Pipes National Park, Victoria, during the 1980s were monitored from 1989 to 2003 to assess whether re-introduced native plant populations had established and persisted at the site. Trends in vegetation were determined by examining the composition and cover of native and weed species in permanent transects at 2-year intervals. The average number of native and weed species in plots changed little over 15 years, although weed species richness exhibited great variability. Of the 85 native species introduced to the grassland by seed, sods and tubestock, 33 were still present in 2003. The dominant native species, Kangaroo Grass (Themeda triandra), the native intertussock spear grasses (Austrostipa spp.), and the nationally endangered Large-headed Groundsel (Senecio macrocarpus), have become common elements of the grassland but most other native species remain minor components. The cover of native and weed species has fluctuated dramatically over the study period in response to fire and drought. While the site remains largely weedy, the project has served to introduce native species into a secure reserve. It is clear that on-going management (weed control, fire) and supplemental plantings will be necessary to maintain and expand the native species populations in the re-established grassland.

Summary A wide road verge on the Bogong High Plains near Falls Creek (north-eastern Victoria), stabilised with exotic species in the late 1950s, was monitored for species composition and cover between 1989 and 2010. Following the removal of cattle grazing in 1991, the cover and species richness of native shrubs, forbs and grasses increased on the verge. Changes were initially slow, but by 1999, they were profound. The cover of exotic species decreased over the same period, but the species richness of exotic species remained unchanged. A wildfire in 2003 did not alter the trajectories of change. Although native species are proving to be competitive, the exotic rhizomic grass Brown-top Bent (Agrostis capillaris) has been very persistent and is still locally dominant. Feral horses and rabbits are future threats to the continued colonisation by native species.

Seed germination is dependent on the interaction between the dormancy state of a seed and the presence of favourable environmental conditions. Thus, the spectacular pulse of seedling recruitment in many Australian vegetation communities following disturbances such as fire can be attributed to changes in microsite conditions and/ or the dormancy-breaking effect of the disturbance on accumulated seed banks. Grevillea rivularis is a threatened species endemic to the area immediately above Carrington Falls in the NSW Southern Highlands. Most of the population is confined to the riparian vegetation zone in woodland and heath, and is therefore subject to periodic disturbance from fire and flood. For this species, a pulse of seedling recruitment has been recorded after fire, flood and mechanical soil disturbance. The aims of this study were to examine the density and vertical distribution of the soil-stored seed bank and to investigate the role of heat and scarification as cues for germination of fresh and soil-stored seed. There was a large seed bank under the canopies of established individuals (194 ± 73 seeds m -2 ) and most seeds were found in the 0-2 cm and leaf-litter layers of the soil profile. The germination response of soil-stored and fresh seed was examined using a hierarchical series of laboratory experiments. Seeds of G. rivularis showed marked dormancy polymorphism. Thirty-six percent of soil-stored seed germinated without treatment, whereas no untreated fresh seeds germinated. Scarification or heating caused significant germination of dormant soil-stored seed, but only scarification resulted in germination of dormant fresh seeds. These results highlight important differences in the dormancy state of soil-stored and fresh seed. Thus, being a riparian species in a fire-prone environment, the dormancy mechanisms in seeds of G. rivularis suit this species to disturbance by both fire and flood.

Summary Although many native species are now used in the revegetation of soil disturbances in Australian alpine areas, exotic species were, until recently, the only components of seed mixes. The use of exotic species and fertilizer was justified by their availability and low cost, and the prediction that native species would replace the exotic sward, presumably once soil nutrient levels dropped to those found in native vegetation. There was no apparent regard for the invasive capacities of the exotic species used. An investigation of a road verge on the Bogong High Plains, revegetated with a mixture of exotic species in the late 1950s, has shown that colonization by native plants can be very slow. Although many native species had colonized by 1993, exotic species still provided 50% of the cover. Agrostis capillaris accounted for most of this. The major native colonizers were Carex spp., Colobanthus affinis, Euchiton spp., Leptinella filicula, Poa hiemata, Ranunculus victoriensis and Scleranthus biflorus. Poa hiemata provided by far the most cover of the native colonizers. There have been considerable increases in the cover and number of native species on the verge since 1989. Cattle grazing and trampling are likely to have limited colonization of native plants prior to the removal of livestock in 1991. Recommendations are made on approaches to future revegetation in the alpine area.

Mountains are of great significance for people and biodiversity. Although often considered to be at low risk from alien plants, recent studies suggest that mountain ecosystems are not inherently more resistant to invasion than other types of ecosystems. Future invasion risks are likely to increase greatly, in particular due to climate warming and increased human land use (e.g. intensification of human activities, human population growth, and expansion of tourism). However, these risks can be reduced by minimising anthropogenic disturbance in and around protected areas, and by preventing the introduction of potentially invasive alien plants into these areas, particularly at high elevations. Sharing information and experiences gained in different mountainous areas is important for devising effective management strategies. We review current knowledge about plant invasions into mountains, assembling evidence from all continents and across different climate zones, and describe experiences at local to global scales in preventing and managing plant invasions into mountain protected areas. Our findings and recommendations are also relevant for managing native species that expand to higher elevations.

Most studies of invasive species have been in highly modified, lowland environments, with comparatively little attention directed to less disturbed, high-elevation environments. However, increasing evidence indicates that plant invasions do occur in these environments, which often have high conservation value and provide important ecosystem services. Over a thousand non-native species have become established in natural areas at high elevations worldwide, and although many of these are not invasive, some may pose a considerable threat to native mountain ecosystems. Here, we discuss four main drivers that shape plant invasions into high-elevation habitats: (1) the (pre-)adaptation of non-native species to abiotic conditions, (2) natural and anthropogenic disturbances, (3) biotic resistance of the established communities, and (4) propagule pressure. We propose a comprehensive research agenda for tackling the problem of plant invasions into mountain ecosystems, including documentation of mountain invasion patterns at multiple scales, experimental studies, and an assessment of the impacts of non-native species in these systems. The threat posed to high-elevation biodiversity by invasive plant species is likely to increase because of globalization and climate change. However, the higher mountains harbor ecosystems where invasion by non-native species has scarcely begun, and where science and management have the opportunity to respond in time.

The vegetation of fire-prone landscapes is influenced by the frequency, severity, seasonality, return interval and stochastic patterning of fire as well as the responses of its component species. An expected increase in fire frequency and severity in association with global warming may result in compositional changes within, and spatial reorganisation of, plant communities; indeed, some plant communities may even face extinction. Vegetation dominated by fire-sensitive species may be most vulnerable to change in fire frequency. A landscape-scale fire in Kosciuszko National Park in 2003 provided an opportunity to compare recovery in vegetation dominated by resprouters and fire-sensitive, obligate seeders. We hypothesised that if plant assemblages had failed to recover after 10 years in terms of species richness and cover they would have been dominated by seeder species pre-fire. After 10 years, two of the six vegetation types investigated had recovered and these were indeed dominated by resprouter species. Two groundwater-dependent vegetation types (one resprouter-dominated and one dominated by fire-sensitive species) were close to recovery. However, the other two types, non-groundwater-dependent shrublands dominated by both seeder and resprouter species, were still far from recovery at that time, with shrub cover reduced and grass cover increased. The likelihood of recovery after 10 years therefore does not appear to be solely a consequence of the regeneration strategies of the dominant species. Post-fire environmental factors (e.g. grazing, disease, climate) may be just as important as regeneration strategies in determining recovery time. Because not all vegetation had recovered after 10 years, prediction of minimum tolerable fire intervals at a landscape scale is impossible at this time. Future fire management needs to be adaptive, taking into account post-fire influences, rather than prescriptive.

Damage to vegetation from tourism and recreation includes the impacts of hiking trails, which may favour trampling-tolerant plants over those that are more sensitive to this type of disturbance. To assess how continued use of a hiking trail coupled with changes in local climate affect a rare Australian alpine plant community, we compared plant composition at different distances from a trail in 2013 during wetter conditions with that 10 years prior during a drought in 2003. In both years, only a few trampling-tolerant graminoids and cushion plants were found on the trail surface, which runs along the ridgeline. Species richness and cover in both surveys generally increased with distance from the trail, but there were differences between the windward and leeward sides of the trail. This included increased abundance of some species but continued disruption of shrub succession on the leeward side of the trail. There was an overall increase in species richness between the two surveys, and changes in the abundance of many species independent of trampling effects, possibly reflecting the more favourable/wetter conditions for plant growth in 2013. These results suggest that changes in climatic conditions can affect community composition, but that this has not negated the impact of the hiking trail on this rare community. With average temperatures increasing, and snow cover declining in the Australian Alps, it is likely that there will be even more changes in the Windswept Feldmark, including the potential colonisation of these ridges by more competitive species, such as graminoids, at the expense of the dominant shrub and some herbs that are already adversely affected by trampling. Longer term monitoring of this rare community is imperative to better understand community processes in relation to the impacts of trail use and climate change. Management options to reduce these impacts are discussed.

Phytophthora cinnamomi continues to cause devastating disease in Australian native vegetation and consequently the disease is listed by the Federal Government as a process that is threatening Australia’s biodiversity. Although several advances have been made in our understanding of how this soil-borne pathogen interacts with plants and of how we may tackle it in natural systems, our ability to control the disease is limited. The pathogen occurs widely across Australia but the severity of its impact is most evident within ecological communities of the south-west and south-east of the country. A regional impact summary for all states and territories shows the pathogen to be the cause of serious disease in numerous species, a significant number of which are rare and threatened. Many genera of endemic taxa have a high proportion of susceptible species including the iconic genera Banksia, Epacris and Xanthorrhoea. Long-term studies in Victoria have shown limited but probably unsustainable recovery of susceptible vegetation, given current management practices. Management of the disease in conservation reserves is reliant on hygiene, the use of chemicals and restriction of access, and has had only limited effectiveness and not provided complete control. The deleterious impacts of the disease on faunal habitat are reasonably well documented and demonstrate loss of individual animal species and changes in population structure and species abundance. Few plant species are known to be resistant to P. cinnamomi; however, investigations over several years have discovered the mechanisms by which some plants are able to survive infection, including the activation of defence-related genes and signalling pathways, the reinforcement of cell walls and accumulation of toxic metabolites. Manipulation of resistance and resistance-related mechanisms may provide avenues for protection against disease in otherwise susceptible species. Despite the advances made in Phytophthora research in Australia during the past 40 years, there is still much to be done to give land managers the resources to combat this disease. Recent State and Federal initiatives offer the prospect of a growing and broader awareness of the disease and its associated impacts. However, awareness must be translated into action as time is running out for the large number of susceptible, and potentially susceptible, species within vulnerable Australian ecological communities.

The fires of summer 2003 in south-eastern Australia burnt tens of thousands of hectares of treeless alpine landscape. Here, we examine the environmental impact of these fires, using data from the Bogong High Plains area of Victoria, and the Snowy Mountains region of New South Wales. Historical and biophysical evidence suggests that in Australian alpine environments, extensive fires occur only in periods of extended regional drought, and when severe local fire weather coincides with multiple ignitions in the surrounding montane forests. Dendrochronological evidence indicates that large fires have occurred approximately every 50–100 years over the past 400 years. Post-fire monitoring of vegetation in grasslands and heathlands indicates that most alpine species regenerate rapidly after fire, with >90% of species present 1 year after fire. Some keystone species in some plant communities, however, had not regenerated after 3 years. The responses of alpine fauna to the 2003 fires were variable. The core habitat (closed heathland) of several vulnerable small mammals was extensively burnt. Some mammals experienced substantial falls in populations, others experienced substantial increases. Unburnt patches of vegetation are critical to faunal recovery from fire. There was, however, no evidence of local extinction. We conclude that infrequent extensive fires are a feature of alpine Australia. For both the flora and fauna, there is no quantitative evidence that the 2003 fires were an ecological disaster, and we conclude that the flora and fauna of alpine Australia are highly resilient to infrequent, large, intense fires.

Grasslands in the Riverina region of south-eastern Australia have long been thought to be derived from woodland dominated by Acacia pendula A.Cunn. ex G.Don and Atriplex nummularia Lindl. following over-grazing and clearing in the 19th Century. Despite the broad acceptance of this view, there is little evidence for such a universal change having occurred. Phytosociological and historical evidence is presented here, which suggests that, although many of the existing grassland remnants are floristically similar to remnants of A. pendula woodland and are probably derived from woodland, natural treeless grassland also probably occurs in the Riverina. Such grassland is floristically distinct from remnant woodland and generally spatially separate, being prevalent in the southern Riverina. Although the delineation of natural and derived grassland boundaries may now be difficult, grassland vegetation in general is of immense biodiversity significance, containing a large number of highly localised rare or threatened species. A decrease in rainfall during the winter and spring growing season, as predicted by climate-change models, may be detrimental to natural grassland, which is restricted to the higher rainfall portion of the Riverina.

Phytophthora cinnamomi is causing the death of a dominant understorey shrub (Oxylobium arborescens) in subalpine woodland at Barrington Tops National Park, northern New South Wales. A threatened species, Tasmannia purpurascens, is also affected. The diseased area is about 5 ha, which is large in New South Wales where P. cinnamomi has not been regarded as a serious pathogen. The infestation is unusual in such high altitude vegetation.

The vegetation of seven sites in the northern jarrah forest of Western Australia infested with Phytophthora cinnamomi was recorded and compared with adjoining vegetation. The number of species per quadrat was found to be the same in vegetation affected by P. cinnamomi as in healthy vegetation, although there were more species overall in affected vegetation. Vegetation of uninfested sites had a higher cover and more species per quadrat of trees and shrubs and lower cover and fewer species per quadrat of annual plants than vegetation of infested sites. Although many species that are known to be highly susceptible to infection by P. cinnamomi were rare at infested sites, only two (Banksia grandis and Tetratheca hirsuta) were absent from all of the 50-year-old infested parts of sites. Several species that are known to be highly susceptible to infection by P. cinnamomi were as common at infested as at healthy sites. The presence of such species at infested sites and the capacity of P. cinnamomi to infect species it does not kill suggest that this pathogen will persist and continue to influence future vegetation in the jarrah forest.