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This seminar paper discusses the enormous economic benefits of investing in women's education. Over time increases in girls' education have the potential to transform societies. Four conclusions were reached: (1) the excess female mortality in many developing countries is a horrifying problem that is the most obvious manifestation of a much broader problem of female deprivation; (2) female deprivation results from a vicious cycle where girls are not educated because they are not expected to make an economic contribution to their families, an expectation that represents a self-fulfilling prophecy; (3) increasing educational opportunities for girls offers the best prospect for cutting into this vicious cycle because increasing outlays directed at educating girls would yield enormous economic and social benefits; and (4) the share of the world's girls who go to school can be increased at a relatively modest cost, and over time have the potential to transfer the society. The best way to achieve increased investment in the education of girls is: (1) provide schools for girls; (2) make educating girls more economically attractive by reducing labor market discrimination against women and reducing the costs to parents of sending their daughters to school; and (3) design schools for girls in a way that is consistent with cultural values. Because education is a labor-intensive business, it is relatively inexpensive to provide in low-income countries. Letting girls go to school, learn to read, and experience more of the world beyond their homes makes them better off immediately and enriches their families. (DK)

Israel is a society with a considerable tradition of social planning and centralized decision making. The government, consequently, was in a position to undertake far-reaching decisions concerning population redistribution. The instrument to accomplish population redistribution was to be a network of small and medium sized urban settlements, located away from the densely populated coastal plain, which have become known as "development towns." They are, then, related to suburbanization in a peculiar way, in that their construction constitutes a governmental response to an unwelcome process of metropolitan growth and suburb proliferation. These new towns have been the focus of much concern. They are populated by recent immigrants, particularly from less developed lands. Many are isolated, outside the main stream of Israeli society geographically as well as socially. For these reasons, the settlements constitute, in many respects, a second and inferior Israel. This paper considers how these settlements have influenced: (1) the areal distributions of different ethnic (country-of-origin) groups, (2) the tendency for each group to be concentrated in certain industries, and (3) the occupational opportunities available to the members of an ethnic population. In the concluding section, the relevance of these considerations for understanding the role of community in ethnic stratification in America is reviewed. (Author/JM)

Vocational Education can play a key role in revitalizing the American economy particularly through research and development in four areas: economic development and productivity, equity and access, youth employment, and energy. It can enhance productivity by identifying innovative vocational education programs successful in enhancing community and economic development, developing entrepreneurship training, aiding in vocational agriculture teacher preparation, developing curricula that addresses community economic development needs, and emphasizing new technologies and leadership development opportunities. Research and demonstration projects can aid in expanding vocational educational opportunities for women, minorities, and handicapped persons. Vocational education can play a key part in reducing youth unemployment by providing in-school and out-of-school programs for disadvantaged youth. It has already begun to respond to emerging industries and technologies needed for the energy crisis. The National Center for Research in Vocational Education can assist in this endeavor by improving national dissemination and utilization of research and development products focusing on the four priorities mentioned above, examining and describing critical issues confronting vocational education, assisting in strengthening the nationwide vocational education research and development system, and improving articulation among education, business, industry, labor, and economic development agencies. (MN)

Federal programs outside the Department of Education (ED) provide significant financial support to elementary and secondary education, according to this paper. The authors give capsule descriptions of over two dozen such non-ED programs, compare changes in non-ED funding with shifts in ED aid, evaluate the impact of non-ED aid on different regions of the country, and briefly note the implications of projected cuts in federal programs. Among the sources of non-ED aid are Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) programs, Head Start, general revenue sharing, local public works assistance, Appalachian regional development programs, the Farmers Home Administration, revenues from use of federal lands, federally-operated schools for the Defense Department and the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Job Corps, veterans benefits, social security, federal research activity in education, agricultural extension programs, prisons, and deductions from federal taxes. The authors chart the changes in non-ED aid from 1974 to 1982, in constant and current dollars, and note that the Plains and Great Lakes states receive less per-capita assistance than other regions from both ED and non-ED sources. (RW)

Conditions in higher education in Michigan and the role of the Governor's Commission on the Future of Higher Education in Michigan are highlighted. The average college tuition rate in Michigan is the highest in the nation, and a critical maintenance and equipment problem exists. The Commission is composed of knowledgeable persons without vested interests in higher education; more than half are graduates of Michigan colleges and universities. The Commission will seek input from every segment of the educational community in the following key areas: students, faculty, trustees, legislators, administrators, labor specialists, and corporate and philanthropic leaders. In beginning its study, the Commission reviewed previous reports that had been completed in the state during 1958-1980. Five basic concerns framed the current report: improving the quality of higher education, increasing the accessibility and affordability of higher education, maintaining diversity and reducing unnecessary duplication, defining the role of colleges in promoting the state's economic revitalization, and defining and supporting the roles of different types of institutions. Areas of assessment include: instruction, research, access, school-business cooperation and economic development, and financial support for higher education. (SW)

This paper addresses the extent to which retraining and training programs are available for employed and unemployed adults. First, demographic and economic shifts and projections into the next century are discussed as the context for needed training. Second, the promise and positive impacts of new technologies in office and business settings are explored, along with the problems that may accompany the introduction of automation in such settings. Approaches to avoiding or alleviating these problems are then presented, along with an examination of the general barriers to adult participation in (re)training programs. The third section discusses the types of training programs available to adults from a variety of providers in the corporate sector (in-house programs, contracts with a postsecondary education institution, tuition-assistance programs, union negotiated training programs), the education and training sector (noncollegiate postsecondary schools, four-year colleges and universities, two-year colleges, professional associations), and the public sector (educational brokering services, public school systems, local community programs, Federal employment and training programs, collaborative training programs). Examples of specific programs are detailed for each sector. Increased emphasis on programs and information that address the needs of adults for training in new office and business technologies is recommended. (Author/YLB)

Recommendations of six state reports that addressed issues confronting state governments and public higher education in the last 2 decades, as well as some new issues, are considered using content analysis. The reports were prepared by formal study commissions in the following states: Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Michigan, Nebraska, and New York. In addition to briefly reviewing related literature, the recommendations are categorized, and new trends in the relationship between the state and higher education are identified. The potential impact of the recommendations on flagship universities are also assessed. The 301 recommendations are grouped into 18 categories, of which those most represented in the reports are: program review, finances, governance, size and scope, and economic development. For each of the 18 categories, tables indicate the frequency of the recommendations found in the six reports, and the distribution of the categories by state. The following conclusions are offered: many of the issues affecting statewide governance have persisted over time; new issues are found; both increased centralization and decentralization are recommended; flagship universities are likely to benefit from recommendations aimed at differentiation; and governors are becoming more active in higher education issues. Four pages of references are included. (SW)

A major effort to restructure the higher education system in the USSR is discussed. The reform is intended to link higher education more directly to the economy through joint research projects, work experiences for students and faculty, and industrial participation in refitting universities with technologically advanced equipment. It is also designed to improve the quality and quantity of scientific research that universities do, to tighten admissions requirements and to improve the ways students are introduced to research, and to centralize the administrative structure of the postsecondary education system. Some of the foundations of the reform are considered, including demographic changes, shifts in technology and in popular attitudes about education, and the need to enhance economic output. Attention is also directed to public discussion of the reform proposal. While newspapers and journals articles during the period between the draft and final decree generally supported the planned changes, difficulties in bringing the reform into action were noted. The long-term fate of the reform is linked to other changes now underway in Soviet society. Efforts to rethink the relationship between higher education and scientific research in the USSR and the United States are compared. Thirty-nine references are provided. (Author/SW)

In the 1980s and 1990s important demographic, economic, and social changes will affect the nation's schools, families, and workplaces. In anticipation of these developments, there is renewed interest in formal educational attainment and basic academic skills. A concerted national effort to address the current crisis in basic skills development would advance the nation's goals in several important ways. This paper attempts to show how inadequate basic skills are intertwined with problems of youth employment and with dropping out of school, out-of-wedlock parenting, welfare dependency, and the decline in work-force productivity. The first section examines relationships among macroeconomic trends, individual earnings, family-formation patterns, and educational achievement. The second explores the basic skills crisis, presenting evidence that inadequate skills are an underlying cause of poverty and economic dependency, and identifying the intergenerational causes and consequences of inadequate basic skills. The third section presents a conceptual framework for thinking about the problem, describes effective programs, outlines a system for improving the quality of current programs and the accountability of the institutions involved, and identifies weaknesses in the nation's current educational and training institutions and systems. The final section suggests an agenda for future action. Appendices discuss the Armed Forces Qualification Test, the results of various literacy tests administered to individuals at different levels of educational attainment, and the effects of basic skills on earnings. Tables and figures illustrate the data. (BJV)

Managers, in both the private and public sectors, are increasingly recognized as critical in the use of scarce resources for national development. There is no unanimity of opinion, however, regarding the models or approaches to management education that are most appropriate in different environmental settings. Traditionally, management education has been dominated by the need to train executives for large-scale enterprises. But the 1980s has seen a global trend toward the deconcentration of business. The future development of the indigenous business sector in the developing world depends heavily on the emergence of small and medium scale entrepreneurs. The roles of public administrators with respect to regulatory and developmental activities enterprise are also changing. This trend is evident not only in market-oriented countries, but also in socialist countries, and many developing countries. This volume encompasses management education for each of these groups--the managers and future managers of large-scale enterprises; entrepreneurs and small business people; and public administrators. Its purpose is to review worldwide trends and developments in management education for information about curriculum design, research and teaching methodology, and institutional policies and administration. Experience is drawn from recognized universities, educational organizations, civil service institutes, and corporations in several major countries and regions of the world. A number of tables and figure appear in this volume along with references. A seminar participants list also is included. (Author/DB)

Existing research evidence on the ability of several kinds of public policy used to increase labor force attachment among the disadvantaged indicates that (1) policies for reform of the U.S. welfare system do not substantially help the problem; (2) increasing child support payments would have essentially no effects on the work effort and earnings of their recipients, who are predominantly female heads of households; (3) policies concerning work and training programs for the disadvantaged, including those requiring welfare recipients to work, are directed most toward disadvantaged women and do not benefit substantial numbers of disadvantaged men; (4) programs for the subsidization of wage rates and earnings that have been studied have not had the desired effect because employers have tended not to participate in them; and (5) if women's child care expenses were reduced 10 percent weekly due to government subsidization, the employment rate of married women should increase by about 3 to 4 percent, representing a large increase in the employment rate of women in the United States. The paper recommends the following: (1) place more emphasis on assistance to disadvantaged men; (2) expand and strengthen job training programs for males and focus additional Job Training Partnership Act resources on the most disadvantaged males; (3) strengthen the training opportunities in the Aid to Families with Dependent Children-Unemployed Parent program, which affects males and which will be mandated in all states by 1990 under the provisions of the Family Support Act of 1988; and (4) strengthen the training opportunities for men receiving benefits in the Food Stamp Program, the only universal transfer program in the United States. (32 references) (CML)

This paper presents a framework for evaluating the level and composition of public expenditures, illustrated by sectoral and country examples. The paper illustrates how this framework can be applied to analyzing broad allocations of spending within and across sectors, drawing upon some key findings and country examples from major sectors (health, education, infrastructure). The report emphasizes six elements which should be an integral part of an ongoing exercise to evaluate public spending. Those elements include: (1) the aggregate level of public spending and deficit of the consolidated public sector must be consistent with the macroeconomic framework; (2) aggregate spending should be allocated to programs within and across sectors to maximize social welfare, including the impact on the poor; (3) the role of the government versus the private sector ought to be a principal criterion governing the choice of programs for public financing and provision--public expenditures should complement rather than substitute for private sector activities; (4) the impact of key programs on the poor, including their incidence and total costs, should be analyzed; (5) the input mix, or the allocations for capital and recurrent expenditures, should be analyzed in an integrated manner within programs and sectors; and (6) budgetary institutions should be analyzed to insure that the underlying incentive structure contributes to aggregate fiscal discipline, allocative efficiency and equity in the composition of spending, and technical efficiency in the use of budgeted resources. Fifteen tables (out of 49) and 5 appendices (out of 17) deal with education-related data. The paper should be useful to policymakers in developing countries, staff in donor organizations, as well as researchers working on public expenditure issues. (Author/EH)

This paper uses data from the 1992-93 Vietnam Living Standards Survey (VLSS) to determine the nature of private schooling in Vietnam. With the restructuring of the educational system, some public institutions have been transformed into private ones, some "people's" and community educational institutions have been established, and some rare private institutions have been established. Estimates of the determinants of the choice among public, private, and semi-public schools indicate that better off households are less likely to send their children to semi-public schools but more likely to send them to private schools. Estimates of the determinants of private (household) expenditures on education show that willingness to spend on education increases as the incomes of Vietnamese household rise. No significant effect of religion or ethnicity are found, except that the Chinese have a higher level of schooling attainment and are more likely to attend private schools. Wage regressions indicate that those who attended private school receive higher wages than individuals with the same level of school attainment who attended public schools. The importance of parental education, especially mother's education, as a determinant of children's ultimate attainment is confirmed. One implication of this is that any targeting efforts, such as the provision of scholarships or vouchers, should consider using parental education to determine eligibility. Sections of the report include: (1) "Introduction"; (2) "Overview of the Education System in Vietnam"; (3) "The Current Role of Private Education in Vietnam"; (4) "An Analysis of the Prospects for, and Benefits of, Expansion of the Private Sector"; and (5) "Summary and Conclusion." The appendix offers "Determinants of School Choice, Upper Secondary Level, 1992-93." (EH)

This paper, which is intended as a guide for local government managers responsible for economic development policies, begins with a discussion of typical goals and practices of local economic development programs. Examined next are examples of local government involvement in economic development efforts through policies/activities such as the following: tax subsidies for branch plants; job training to provide businesses with workers; advice/support services for potential entrepreneurs; and extension services to help business modernize and export. Fifteen guiding principles for formulating goals of local economic development programs and organizing, implementing, and evaluating those programs are presented. Concluding the paper is a brief discussion of the policy implications of the thesis that effective local management of economic development requires careful targeting of limited public funds, leveraging of private resources, and cooperation of different groups in the local labor market area. Special emphasis is placed on the following economic development policies/strategies: encouraging local education and training institutions to be more responsive to small/medium-sized businesses' training needs through customized training; providing public support for quasi-private information and training services for small/medium-sized firms; and focusing on stabilizing the local tax base and improving overall labor market opportunities for local residents. The paper contains 79 endnotes. (MN)

African nations have been experiencing rapid rates of urbanization accompanied by serious problems of urban unemployment due to the rate of rural-urban migration and the lack of an adequate understanding of the migration process for economic policy formulation. The aim of this paper was to review the present knowledge of African rural-urban migration, suggesting future directions for improved methodology and theory for economic research on migration. Focus was on: (1) Migrants (identity) and the Migrant Process; (2) Determinants of Rural-Urban Migration (noneconomic factors and income differentials); (3) Implications of Migration for Economic Development (distortions in factor markets, migration as capital transfer, and externalities associated with migration). The literature revealed that younger, better educated people have dominated rural-urban migration in Africa; economic motives have been important in determining the rate of rural-urban migration (little agreement as to the relevant economic variables in the decision to migrate); divergence between the private and social returns of migration (almost no research establishing the divergence magnitude). Future migration theory should include the human capital approach; methodology should utilize sample survey techniques, rather than unreliable census data, and migration research should be linked with policy concerning education, population distribution, industrial decentralization, and rural-urban labor markets. (JC)

This paper is the fourth in a series of yearly efforts to identify the top 10 public-policy issues facing higher education. Each of the issues is discussed in terms of likely developments in 1997-98, the issue's various aspects, and sources of further information. Issues identified are: (1) the Higher Education Act Reauthorization (issues relating to the federal role in making college more affordable and accessible); (2) federal budget constraints (the commitment to balance the budget jeopardizes all programs including student aid and campus-based research); (3) various federal tax proposals affecting higher education; (4) innovative state financing (demographic trends and slower growth of state funding); (6) health-care system changes (reforms to the Medicare program will affect most colleges and universities); (7) fair use under copyright law (institutional fair-use policies face rigid guidelines that impinge on important educational needs); (8) job training (Congress is expected to look at every piece of legislation that affects job training and employment); (9) the quality of teaching and learning (concerns about teaching and learning will lead to review and modification of conditions of employment and training for teachers); and (10) the virtual university (many issues relating to the governance and financing of technology-based virtual universities must be resolved). (DM)

Four commissioned papers prepared for a conference on key concepts in the areas of economic productivity and adaptability in the Northeastern states are presented in this document. These papers reflect an important fact: that major socioeconomic changes are underway that will affect the ability of Northeastern states to maintain productive and sustainable rural economies. The papers also address the challenges and opportunities for research and extension linkages with a focus on ameliorating problems and taking advantage of potential opportunities. The first paper, "Economic, Social and Environmental Impacts of Economic Development Distribution" (Thomas Lyson), focuses on the changes in economic activity in rural areas, and the need for rural restructuring. This paper contains several tables and maps showing the changes in economic activity in recent years. The next paper, entitled "Fiscal Impacts of Economic Changes on the Revenues and Expenditures of Rural Local Governments and Communities" (Farhad Atash) reviews past literature on these impacts. The third paper, "Economic and Social Outcomes of Public and Private Investments in Physical Infrastructure for Growth and Stability of Rural Economies" (Steven Deller), reviews studies that examine the link between investment in economic and social overhead capital, and economic development and growth. The last paper, called "The Key Factors in the Community's Social and Physical Environment That Enhance Sustainable Local Economic Activity" (Frank Goode & Ganesh Rauniyar), identifies the type of information system necessary to deal effectively with sustainable economic activity in rural development efforts. Each paper contains numerous references. (KS)

Seventy-one 1963-75 Research & Development (R&D) reports were reviewed for purposes of providing a rural R&D synthesis useful to Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA) planners and identifying labor market analysis techniques/implications successful rural programmatic initiations, data gaps, and broad policy issues. Conclusions and suggestions re: future research objectives were made relative to the supply and demand for rural labor and the design/experience of rural employment and training programs. In general, the literature suggested: rural labor market problems were unique in origin, requiring population specific program responses; the role of poverty related economic development problems had been explored, but the causes of varying rates of economic development in rural areas had not been clearly documented nor had the effectiveness of encouraging economic development via special efforts and geographic specific orientations been explored; rural labor force members behaved differently than their urban counterparts, but the reasons for the differences remained unexplained; the success of education/training programs was related to client motivation, and the most successful programs were those offering a variety of supportive services in addition to basic education; low wage rates influenced client motivation when welfare services were comparable; there was a rural youth emphasis; R&D literature was more oriented toward the research than the practitioner community. (JC)