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To reach its climate targets and secure its energy supply, Switzerland needs to multiply the annual deployment of renewable energy technologies, especially solar PV (as also shown in the SWEET EDGE inter-model comparison). However, household solar PV deployment is lagging and needs to be accelerated significantly through a supportive policy environment. Yet, the fragmentation of Switzerland’s energy policy landscape is large, resulting in higher search/transaction costs, risks and inefficient allocation of capital, which may represent a significant barrier to accelerated solar PV deployment. In this Policy White paper, we analyze the extent to which policy in Switzerland relevant for household PV is fragmented geographically along cantons and municipalities, and functionally along a set of policy instruments. Our results show that cantons and municipalities have vastly different policies, including taxation rules, building codes, subsidies and many more. At the same time, more than 500 (largely) state-owned electricity utilities have implemented widely diverging solar feed-in-tariffs (5 to 22 Rp/kWh) and charge very different electricity prices (10 to 32 Rp/kWh). Overall, there is little evidence that cantons and municipalities push for highly ambitious policies, with only a few cantons using their leeway to provide stronger financial incentives to households/investors. Instead, the institutional structure seems to generate a tendency towards low-ambition compromise in the policy environment. Using a techno-economic model, we show that this policy fragmentation indeed creates a massive variance in the profitability – one of the key determinants of technology deployment – of rooftop solar PV installations. While rooftop household solar PV is highly profitable in some municipalities due to local subsidies, a favorable tax environment, or high tariffs, other municipalities have relatively unfavorable policy environments. Based on our analyses, we propose a strategy to reduce this policy fragmentation while increasing ambition. We argue in favor of a targeted harmonization of selected policy instruments to create stronger incentives for accelerated solar PV deployment and to reduce unnecessary barriers, such as harmonizing the taxation of profits from solar PV installations on the cantonal level. Through their ownership of electricity utilities, municipalities and cantons should also work toward reducing the stark geographical differences in feed-in tariffs and electricity prices, while allowing for local differences where appropriate. In sum, the White Paper argues that a targeted harmonization of the highly fragmented energy policy landscape, aiming at more ambitious minimal standards, is key for an accelerated deployment of solar PV, and thus for reaching the targets of Switzerland’s Energy Strategy 2050.

Malaysia has realised the importance of renewable energy (RE) in the energy mix and continuously reviewing its energy policy to ensure sustainable energy supply. The use of RE is among the options although the RE capacity is still underutilized. Malaysia achieves 5.5% share of RE in the energy mix by 2015, and the RE sector is expected to double by 2020 with strong growth in the solar photovoltaic (PV), biomass and biogas markets. Beyond 2020, it is predicted that solar energy will surpass all other forms of RE for Malaysia and other countries, and the solar power will be the long term source of energy supply. After an investigation on the RE policy, the domestic solar PV manufacturing scenario is elaborated in this paper. This includes the solar PV manufacturing, issues and trade disputes, and the way forward. Among the key findings from this paper include: the foreign direct investment (FDI) related to RE sector especially from the US and lately China, have increased rapidly, and more ‘green' jobs in the solar PV manufacturing and installation sectors have been created. With the existence of trade disputes between the United States and the European Union with China, Malaysia has the potential to reap benefits with the inflow of direct investments from China. Nevertheless, the future incidence of RE trade disputes is still uncertain.

Many renewable energy policies are looking into new incentives to absorb investments by targeting abating CO 2 emission and fixing energy price fluctuation. Feed in Tariff (FIT) is a policy for rebating the amount of generated renewable electricity to investor. FIT is also defined as a CO 2 mitigation policy in electricity generation from renewable sources. This paper presents a cost benefit survey that estimates the real produced carbon dioxide for electricity generation in selected countries. This study introduces the substitute price of avoiding CO 2 emission as an indicator. The new indicator shows how much is paid for avoiding CO 2 by each selected countries through the FIT policy for renewable technologies. The amount calculated for solar energy is taken as a case in this paper. The result confirms that the FIT policy reasonably works for solar energy in absorbing investment. However the FIT policy claims a large portion of liquidity compared with other approaches. Hence makes this mechanism inept as a CO 2 mitigation policy.

We bring together a collection of papers that were presented at the inaugural event of the Asia‐Europe Energy Policy Research Network (AEEPRN), held at Singapore in May 2012. The idea for creating AEEPRN was in response to the growing importance of energy in Asia and Europe’s relations and to our shared belief that energy will become a more significant aspect of these relations over the forthcoming years and decades. The papers presented here cover the following themes: wind energy, biofuels, natural gas and gas pipelines, exergy and manufacturing, green energy co‐operation, coal, unconventional gas and solar energy.

The need to meet the growing energy demand from Zambia's growing economy and the large number of un-electrified households has been the major driver towards the introduction of renewable energy technology in the country. This study is based on a review of planning and policy documents, a household questionnaire survey and interviews with energy institutions, planners and rural development organisations. The paper examines Zambia's efforts to exploit renewable energy technology. The paper reveals a growing interest in renewable energy among policy makers and planners. Attempts have been made to integrate renewable energy technologies in development policy and plans. The study also shows that the use of renewable energy in rural Zambia is limited mainly to solar energy technologies with minimal exploitation of wind energy technology. However, household use of solar energy technologies in the form of solar home systems is limited to an elite group of rural population that is mostly in formal and / or government employment. The challenges of renewable energy use in Zambia include inadequate policy provision and implementation, lack of awareness among rural households about the benefits of renewable energy, the high cost of technology and the undeveloped nature of renewable energy markets.

The continued economic decline of sub-Saharan Africa, and the African energy crisis in particular, have received considerable attention in recent literature. Little attention, however, has been given to the assessment of solar power as an environmentally sound and economically viable energy strategy. Considering the increasing fuelwood scarcity and debt incurred through petroleum imports, solar energy provides a welcome alternative to traditional biomass and fossil fuel energy sources. Research and development in solar energy has concentrated primarily on highly technical, capital intensive applications, leaving possibilities for small scale utilizations unexplored. This paper argues for small scale, decentralized development of solar power as a sustainable household fuel source for sub-Saharan Africa. Domestic cooking constitutes more than 60% of total energy use in the region and consumes scarce time, labor, income, and natural resources. Thus, the appropriate management of fuel and energy resources in the residential sector is crucial for significant development. This paper examines the economic viability of solar box cookers (SBCs), their costs and benefits both on the household and community levels, and how they may contribute to economic development. In arguing for the implementation of SBCs, policy implications in terms of financing and a comprehensive energy plan geared towards sustainable development are also presented.

This paper examines the impact of China's 2005–2020 solar power energy policies on the stock performance of nine economic sectors in China, Japan, Germany, and the U.S. In order to model how policy shocks affect market performance, we develop a joint contagion test of higher-order co-moments, defining policy contagion as significant changes in the third- and fourth-order co-moments in the post-announcement period as compared to the pre-announcement period. The results show that eight Chinese solar energy policies have significant impacts on nine economic sectors in China, with weaker effects in Germany and the U.S., and the least significance in Japan. Among the eight energy policies, policy supporting plans (i.e., three national five-year plans from 2006 to 2020) provide stronger evidence of contagion to international markets than economic instruments (i.e., feed-in tariffs and subsidies).

Renewable energy trade is booming and has formed complicated networks worldwide. However, our knowledge of the spatial structures and evolution of these networks is limited. In this paper, network analyses are used to examine the geographic characteristics of selected renewable energy trades and their evolution based on the United Nations COMTRADE Database from 1988 to 2013. The results show that the networks are expanding to include more and more countries and relationships, and scale of the networks is larger than ever. A tripartite confrontational renewable energy trading system has been forming and is strengthening. Europe, the USA, China and other Asian countries are the main players, and China has overtaken the USA and Europe as the leading player. Inequality and ‘small-world’ characteristics appear in renewable energy trade. Solar energy trade presents a triadic community structure with Europe, the USA and China as the dominant players, while hydro energy trade presents a smaller and more dispersed structure. The core–periphery structure strongly suggests a trade dependency between hubs and peripheral elements in renewable energy trade. Developing countries should design appropriate incentives and contribute to particular segments in renewable energy value chain to accelerate and benefit from the South–South renewable energy trade.

The aim of this paper is to analyses residential solar PV feed-in tariffs (FiT) policy history to inform the development of a sustainable flexible pricing regime to enhance the diffusion of energy storage, electric vehicles, solar PV installations and other distributed resources focusing on the case of ‘solar rich’ Australia. Solar PV has reached price parity at the retail level where the electricity price charged includes both transmission and distribution costs, in addition to the wholesale price. So the economic rationale for paying a FiT premium above market rates to achieve dynamic efficiency is no longer warranted. However, there is justification pay a premium to encourage dynamic innovation in energy storage. Socially, FiTs can be a problem because they can transfer wealth from poorer to richer households. Additionally, new investment in distribution and transmission, driven by peak demand spikes from air conditioners can act as a further transfer. Environmentally, FiTs can also fall short of their full potential to cut emissions if they lack ‘time of use’ price signals that reflect movements in the wholesale price. We suggest a sustainable flexible price regime that can be designed to addresses all three areas of concern: social, environmental and economic. The resultant transmission and distribution investment deferment would meet both environmental and economic objectives. We argue that the time has come to design a sustainable flexible price regime for solar PV that focusses upon allocative efficiency as an explicit goal and to introduce support for other distributed resources including energy storage to encourage dynamic efficiency.

Planning for America's energy future is related as much to present and future attitudes, values and perceptions as it is to the physical constraints of energy. Values must be developed, expressed, and com? monly accepted before the polity can effectively help plan our energy future. I suggest that solar energy be used as a tool to assist this crea? tive process. This paper contrasts the views of solar energy with the creative process of the community paradigm, as well as the traditional economic paradigm. Solar energy can provide society with an important alternative energy source to help meet the U.S. energy requirements. While this is, in and of itself, a major accomplishment, solar energy may also provide the opportunity for development and expression of values and expansion of individual choice. In this context, solar has the advantage of offering decentralized energy systems, appropriate tech? nology, self-sufficiency, and autonomy for individuals and communities. The first section of the paper elaborates on the needed, but limit? ed, function of economics in establishing energy policy. The second section focuses on the importance of establishing social values as a prerequisite to both energy policy and the means through which solar energy can be developed. Solar energy can be viewed as a means to create values, as well as a result of an alternative value set. By utilizing solar energy, values such as protecting the environment, preserving nonrenewable resources, and promoting individual autonomy may gain importance. Likewise, if values like the ones just mentioned are deemed important, solar energy may be the result of this type of al? ternative value set. The last section explores the trend toward centralization of most facets of life in the United States. Solar energy offers the option of

Croatia has enormous renewable energy potential, particularly solar, but it is underperforming with regard to its use both for electricity production and heating. Paper focuses on the reasons therefor by analyzing the policy with regard to environment, subsidies, the role of international financial institutions, monopoly dimension of power utility companies, as well as social dimension. The author presents proposals for changing the status quo in order for Croatia to catch up with regard to securing reasonable solar and other renewable energy share in its energy supply. Apart from the state as regulator which has various instruments at its disposal to implement thoroughly the renewable energy use, local authorities should assume central role and responsibility for solarizing their territories and generating the energy locally from other renewable energy sources available on their territory. Municipal utility companies would thus add electricity production to their regular activities and could provide installation and maintenance services for individual energy generating systems within the territory of their competence.

Energy security is sometimes used to advocate renewable energy systems. Renewable energy systems can improve some aspects of security, but they will not automatically lead to the removal of all types of security problems and new problems will most certainly arise. This paper analyses energy security aspects of renewable energy systems on the basis of a broad typology on energy and security. Renewable energy sources do not suffer from the same long-term resource availability problems as finite fossil resources and their geographical location is less concentrated, but other issues such as dependence on variable flowing resources and competition for scarce land resources will grow in importance. Many security issues related to energy are also dependent on the energy carrier rather than the energy resource and on the existence of effectively functioning institutions and regulations. New interdependencies will appear and will have to be handled within future international and bilateral institutional frameworks.

International audience; High demand for photovoltaic (PV), battery, and small-scale combined heat and power (CHP) technologies are driving a virtuous cycle of technological improvements and cost reductions in off-grid electric systems that increasingly compete with the grid market. Using a case study in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, this paper quantifies the economic viability of off-grid PV+battery+CHP adoption and evaluates potential implications for grid-based utility models. The analysis shows that already some households could save money by switching to a solar hybrid off-grid system in comparison to the effective electric rates they are currently paying. Across the region by 2020, 92% of seasonal households and ~75% of year-round households are projected to meet electricity demands with lower costs. Furthermore, ~65% of all Upper Peninsula single-family owner-occupied households will both meet grid parity and be able to afford the systems by 2020. The results imply that economic circumstances could spur a positive feedback loop whereby grid electricity prices continue to rise and increasing numbers of customers choose alternatives (sometimes referred to as a "utility death spiral"), particularly in areas with relatively high electric utility rates. Utility companies and policy makers must take the potential for grid defection seriously when evaluating energy supply strategies.

Market reform, energy security and environmental protection are three primary energy policy goals of Turkish government. Although Turkey's abundant solar energy resources can directly address the government's energy policy goals, Turkey has not utilized solar power yet. Utilization of country's huge solar energy potential would decrease dependence on imported fossil fuels and contribute to fulfill environmental commitments. However, lack of regulatory and financial support for the development of solar power has considerably delayed the utilization of country's huge solar potential. The government has taken only modest steps to promote investment in solar power until the end of 2010 when a new feed-in tariff policy was adapted. Turkey's solar energy potential, PV technology status and prospect for concentrating solar power in Turkey have been explored in a number of studies; yet literature dealing with recent policy developments, associated investment environment and opportunities for solar power investors are limited. The aim of this paper is to set out the latest legal framework for investment in Turkey's emerging solar power market and to provide some guidelines to potential investors who appreciated country's huge solar energy potential.

Solar photovoltaic technologies have for some time been promoted as a cost effective means of rural electrification in developing countries. However, institutional structures resulting in poor maintenance have adversely affected the sustainability of past solar projects. In Fiji, the Renewable Energy Service Company (RESCO) program is the latest attempt to promote solar-based rural electrification in a fee-for service model, aiming to remove the high upfront capital costs associated with solar technologies and using a public private sector partnership for maintenance. This paper assesses the program using survey and interview data. Major flaws are identified, relating to incorrect treatment of principal-agent problems, information asymmetries, motivational problems, and resourcing of government agencies. General lessons for fee-for-service solar home system models emerge, including that incentives for stakeholders must take centre stage in designing and administering such programs, and that active government support and ownership are required to make programs sustainable.

This paper aims to present the feed-in tariff (FiT) outlook in Malaysia, which is in the process of being enacted through a Renewable Energy (RE) Policy by the Government of Malaysia (GoM). A brief in policies leading towards the RE policy and the potential of each RE sources under FiT mechanism have been discussed. The successful utilisation of RE source in electricity generation and the FiT implementation globally are positive indicators to implement FiT in Malaysia. Potentials of FiT on biomass, biogas and solid waste energy are currently very promising in Malaysia, but it is solar energy which is predicted to be the main RE of the future, surpassing all other REs.

This paper examines two types of information requirements that appear to be basic to DOE solar-energy-policy decisions: (1) how can the future market success of solar energy technologies be estimated, and (2) what factors influence the adoption of solar energy technologies, and what specific programs could promote solar energy adoption most effectively. This paper assesses the ability of a body of research, referred to here as diffusion research, to supply information that could partially satisfy these requirements. This assessment proceeds, first, by defining in greater detail a series of policy issues that face DOE. These are divided into cost reduction and performance improvement issues which include issues confronting the technology development component of the solar energy program, and barriers and incentives issues which are most relevant to problems of solar energy application. Second, these issues are translated into a series of questions that the diffusion approach can help resolve. Third, various elements within diffusion research are assessed in terms of their abilities to answer policy questions. Finally, the strengths and limitations of current knowledge about the diffusion of innovations are summarized, the applicability of both existing knowledge and the diffusion approach to the identified solar-energy-policy issues are discussed, and waysmore » are suggested in which diffusion approaches can be modified and existing knowledge employed to meet short- and long-term goals of DOE. The inquiry covers the field of classical diffusion research, market research and consumer behavior, communication research, and solar-energy market-penetration modeling.« less

Present energy situation of the world is unsustainable due to unequal geographical distribution of natural wealth as well as environmental, geopolitical and economical concerns. Ever increasing drift of energy consumption due to growth of population and transportation has motivated researchers to carry out research on solar energy as an alternative source of primary energy supply. The International Energy Agency estimates that solar energy could make up as much as a quarter of the world’s total electricity production by 2050. With an estimated 900 million people in Asia still lacking access to electricity, most beyond the reach of grid development and centralized generation, localized solar plants are a viable solution. This paper presents a complete overview on the solar energy situation of SAARC countries including present status and future policies and targets. A detailed research on solar energy status and prospects of SAARC countries was done during the period September-December, 2016.

The study assesses the role of feed-in tariffs (FITs) and renewable energy certificates (RECs) in creating incentives for cross-border investments and for investments in particular technological portfolios via M&A. The analysis explores the dataset on M&As in alternative energy sources worldwide over 2005-2011. The results suggests that FITs encourage more diversified M&A than RECs. With respect to foreign investment, the study finds a linear relationship between FITs and cross-border M&As in the wind energy sector, but an inverted U-shaped relationship in the solar energy sector. One possible explanation for the latter may lie in reduced policy credibility due to the public finance implications of ‘generous’ FITs. Another possible explanation for this finding concerns the use of high solar FITs by countries whose natural conditions provide little comparative advantage in solar energy, suggesting that low profitability and limited potential of solar energy in those countries might have deterred the entry of foreign investors.

Japan has few indigenous energy supplies, and imports the bulk of its energy, so it is hardly surprising that, following the oil crises of the mid 1970's, it has taken renewable energy seriously. Moreover, increasing constrains on energy and the environment, especially the global environmental consequences of energy use, are causing a rising concern world wide, giving a warning that such constraints may be limits to sustaining our future development. This paper, at first, introduce prospects of energy demand and supply in Japan, then, the author look at the real potential of domestic renewable energy resources, such as solar thermal energy, photovoltaics, wind power, hydro power, ocean energy, biomass, and geothermal energy. Finally, the renewable energy strategy in Japan is asserted.

An effective energy technology strategy has to balance between setting a stable long term framework for innovation, while also responding to more immediate changes in technology cost and performance. Over the last decade, rather than a steady progression along an established learning curve, PV costs and prices have been volatile, with increases or plateaus followed by rapid reductions. The paper describes, and considers the causes of, recent changes in PV costs and prices at module and system level, both international trends and more place-specific contexts. It finds that both module and system costs and price trends have reflected multiple overlapping forces. Established forecasting methods – experience curves and engineering assessments – have limited ability to capture key learning effects behind recent PV cost and price trends: production scale effects, industrial re-organization and shakeouts, international trade practices and national market dynamics. These forces are likely to remain prominent aspect of technology learning effects in the foreseeable future – and so are in need of improved, more explicit representation in energy technology forecasting.

In this paper, the energy subsidisation policies that are in effect in Cyprus are investigated with respect to their effect on renewable energy systems economics. Two subsidisation policies are investigated, those of renewable energy and fuels. These are contradictory, as one is in favour and the other is against the exploitation of renewable energies on the island, which is the declared Government policy. First, the policy measures are described and their effect on the economic viability of a solar system is investigated by means of an example. This concerns a solar industrial process heat system for which four types of collectors are considered. From the results presented it is clear that renewable energy subsidies create a positive impulse on renewable energies whereas the economic factors improve considerably when the subsidy for fuel is removed, as the expenditure made for the erection of a solar system replaces a more expensive fuel.

Recent analyses indicated that solar heating and cooling systems for residential buildings are nearly economically competitive with conventional fossil fuel or electric systems, the former having higher initial cost but a lower operating cost than the latter. The paper examines obstacles to the widespread acceptance and use of solar space conditioning systems and explores some general policies which could help to overcome them. The discussion covers such institutional barriers limiting the adoption of solar technologies as existing building codes, financing constraints, and organizational structure of the building industry. The potential impact of financial incentives is analyzed. It is noted that a tax incentive of 25% could speed the use of solar energy by 7 to 8 years and produce an 8% reduction in fossil fuel use by 1990. A preliminary incentive package which could be helpful in promoting solar energy both at federal and state levels is proposed, and the necessary incentive level is analysed.

In this paper, we analyze the rationale for providing federal financial subsidies for the development of solar energy. Various justifications for subsidies are discussed, including parity with present subsidies for conventional energy sources, economic externalities, tax law biases, and foreign policy considerations. It is found that, while a substantial level of government financial incentives for solar energy development can be justified, a quantification of the level of incentives is difficult to achieve. The implications for U.S. energy policy are discussed.

A study to examine U.S. policies, priorities, criteria, needs and benefits of international cooperation in solar energy identified four major program components for increased emphasis; namely, Research and Development (R&D) Cooperation, Development and Demonstration (D&D) Cooperation, Demonstration and Assistance (D&A) Cooperation, and Assistance in Commercialization (AiC) Programs involving U.S. industry. Utilizing phased program planning and establishing approaches, guidelines, criteria and priorities, U.S. multilateral and bilateral cooperative programs can be effectively explored on a mutual benefit basis with developed and developing countries. This paper summarizes some of the study results to encourage the much needed dialogue among those interested in furthering the development of solar energy through U.S. international cooperation.