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Most research examining the efficacy of early grade retention has been limited to outcomes during elementary school. A notable gap in the retention literature is the dearth of studies examining outcomes during late adolescence. The results of this prospective longitudinal study include comparisons among four unique samples: (1) early grade retainees; (2) students retained in a transition classroom; (3) students recommended for transitional placement but promoted; and (4) regularly promoted students, through the eleventh grade. Results of this study failed to demonstrate the effectiveness of grade retention on academic achievement. Moreover, analyses of behavior suggest that retained students display more aggression during adolescence. Furthermore, the group of students recommended for transitional placement, but promoted, were comparable to the control group on all achievement and behavior measures during high school. The results of this study may be further understood considering a transactional model of development, emphasizing the importance early experiences on subsequent development. The results of longitudinal studies of grade retention warrant further consideration in developing educational policies and implementing effective prevention and early intervention strategies.

Previously published research has not moved beyond studying the general association between retention and high school dropout. This longitudinal study seeks to evaluate within-group differences, exploring the characteristics of those students who are retained and subsequently drop out as compared to those students who are retained and do not drop out. A transactional-ecological view of development is presented to assist in situating the findings within a framework of long-term outcomes across development. The results of this study suggest that there are early socio-emotional and behavioral characteristics that distinguish which retained students are most likely to drop out of high school. In addition, maternal level of education and academic achievement in the secondary grades were also associated with high school graduation status. These findings provide information that extend beyond the association between grade retention and later dropout. In particular, this investigation suggests that it is especially important to attend to the socio-emotional and behavioral adjustment of children throughout their schooling to facilitate both their immediate and long-term academic success.

This prospective longitudinal study followed a sample of 106 kindergarten students through 11th grade examining the effects of family characteristics, school readiness, socialization, and student demographics on academic achievement and behavioral adjustment outcomes. These educational outcomes were contrasted among four groups consisting of: 1) early grade retainees; 2) transitionally placed retained students; 3) students recommended for transitional placement, but promoted; and 4) regularly promoted students. While previous studies examining the efficacy of early grade retention focus exclusively on between-group comparisons, this study examines the family and individual characteristics of successful and unsuccessful retained students by including both between-group and within-group effects on academic and behavioral outcomes. The results of this study demonstrate that retained students' initial school readiness, socioeconomic status, mother's level of education, parental value of education, kindergarten personal-social functioning, and chronological age are distinctly associated with subsequent academic or behavioral outcomes. Variables associated with relative educational success following early failure are delineated and research implications are discussed. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

This study investigates the outcomes from a transitional first-grade school readiness program (SRP). SRP-placed and nonplaced SRP-recommended students advanced directly into first-grade samples were equated on sex, chronological age at entrance to kindergarten, Gesell School Readiness Test scores, and a developmental delay statistic. The role of teacher-rated student social, problematic, behavioral, motivation, success, self-esteem, classroom participation, and engagement domains, as well as selected demographic background variables, were examined along with standardized achievement outcomes. Referral and placement rate profiles support educational services of special education, remedial reading, Chapter 1, social skills, and counseling services across the two samples. Parent surveys examined the role of parental level of education, attitudes, and other contextual factors. Controlled analyses note nonsignificant academic outcome differences between SRP-placed and controlled nonplaced samples. Students recommended for SRP placement yet not placed did not exhibit significant second-grade differences compared with the year-older SRP-placed students across achievement, related services, parental factors, or teacher rating outcomes.