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[Display omitted] • Dynamic multi-period EoL traction battery recycling network with capacity expansions. • Location decisions are taken on two levels of the supply chain, namely for disassembling centers and recycling plants. • Model is applied to an OEM in Germany with data derived from cost estimation. • Literature investigation and demonstration of their limitation. • Trade-off between economy of scale and transport costs exists. The growth of the battery powered vehicle market will lead to an increasing amount of End of Life (EoL) electric vehicle battery systems (EVBSs) in the future. Although pointed out as a future challenge by research as well as industry, the analysis and design of EoL traction batteries' recycling networks have not been conducted extensively. Existing quantitative optimization models do not contain dynamic characteristics that are of importance for a growing market. We present a dynamic EoL battery reverse supply chain optimization model that allows planning over multiple periods and multiple supply chain layers while including capacity expansions of disassembling centers and recycling plants. The model is applied to a case study of an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) of battery electric vehicles that handles all EoL recycling activities for its batteries in a single stakeholder-driven network in Germany. The average EoL costs per EVBS were estimated to decrease by over 35% from 2030 to 2044 due to using larger processing facilities that benefit from economy of scale and lower transportation costs because more locations exist. The network change is driven by the growth of EoL EVBS supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the coming decades, the number of end-of-life (EoL) traction battery systems will increase sharply. The disassembly of the system to the battery module is necessary to recycle the battery modules or to be able to use them for further second-life applications. These different recovery paths are important pathways to archive a circular battery supply chain. So far, little knowledge about the disassembling of EoL batteries exists. Based on a disassembly experiment of a plug-in hybrid battery system, we present results regarding the battery set-up, including their fasteners, the necessary disassembly steps, and the sequence. Upon the experimental data, we assess the disassembly duration of the battery system under uncertainty with a fuzzy logic approach. The results indicate that a disassembling time of about 22 min is expected for the battery system in the field study if one worker conducts the process. An estimation for disassembling costs per battery system is performed for a plant in Germany. Depending on the plant capacity, the disassembling to battery module level is associated with costs between EUR 80 and 100 per battery system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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• Combined LCA and MFA of hydro. and direct recycling routes for a closed-loop battery value from OEM's perspective. • Savings potential of GHG emissions compared to virgin material production for recycling routes and two NMC cathode. • Analysis of admixture ratios of direct recycled cathode active material and choice of allocation method over time. • Obligatory allocation rules of EoL processes for reliable and realizable LCAs are needed to ensure correct accounting. • Technological investigation of admixture ratios for all kinds of recycling processes needed. We conduct a life cycle assessment (LCA) for two recycling processes, a hydrometallurgical and a direct recycling route. Both show ecological benefits compared to production with virgin material (between 2.76–4.55 kg CO2e/ kg battery for NMC111 and NMC811 less greenhouse gas emissions). In contrast to previous works, we combine the LCA results with a dynamic material flow model. This allows the evaluation of the influence on ecological benefits of admixture limits for directly recycled cathode material in a closed-loop recycling system over a time in which the newly produced battery systems and the amount of end-of-life traction batteries grows. We show that for such a closed-loop recycling system, the choice of different allocation methods, namely cut-off or avoided burden approach, may lead to significantly varying results of up to 85% in ecological benefits. We further conclude that combining production with both recycling routes can achieve the lowest greenhouse gas emissions for our closed-loop scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electro-mobility is considered a key strategy to reduce GHG emissions in the transport sector and to make individual mobility more sustainable. However, the production of electric vehicles is accompanied by high environmental impacts, mainly due to the resource intensive high-voltage battery systems. Hence, a prerequisite for sustainable electro-mobility – beside the provision of renewable energy for vehicle charging – is a well-functioning and efficient circular use system of electric vehicle battery systems (EVBs). While the production of EVBs has been continuously improved in recent years with high levels of automation to reduce production costs and to increase capacities, end-of-life (EoL) treatment of EVBs is still rather simplistic with rough manual disassembling before in most cases pyro-metallurgical treatment. In this paper, we argue for the need of industrial disassembly systems to reach higher levels of circularity. In the best case, these systems are highly automated and use lifecycle information including production and use-phase data for decision support to enable optimum utilization at a module or even cell level. These pathways include both second-life concepts such as repurposing or reconditioning and high-level direct recycling of active materials. To demonstrate the advantages of an industrial disassembling in EoL battery treatment, we systematically analyze different utilization pathways and we compare state-of-the-art treatment with an advanced disassembly system. The qualitative argumentation is substantiated by quantitative stochastic simulation as well as cost and lifecycle data. We show that only with a well-functioning industrial disassembling, efficient closed-loop-supply-chains (CLSCs) for EVBs can be achieved. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remanufacturing is a key element of circular economy solutions as it aims at increasing the service lifetime of entire products or specific components, which may reduce the demand for new, resource-consuming devices. To assess the potential of disassembling and subsequent remanufacturing of EV batteries, we present a discrete event simulation approach. This approach depicts the life cycle of batteries and EVs separately, which allows capturing the demand for spare batteries and the potential contribution of remanufacturing batteries to cover this demand. By running various scenarios taking the German EV market as an example, the importance of providing cost-effective spare batteries through remanufacturing is underlined. As a baseline, a linear case is examined, where remanufacturing is not an option. Additionally, we built scenarios where remanufactured batteries are used as spare parts for older vehicles. Another major variation is introduced by different average battery lifetimes (10, 15, and 20 years), while the average vehicle lifetime is 15 years in all cases. The results show that remanufactured spare batteries could decrease the demand for new batteries compared to the linear base case. When battery lifetimes are lower than those of vehicles, new battery demand could be reduced by 6–7%, given our assumptions. In future scenarios where expected battery lifetimes might exceed vehicle lifetimes, up to 2% savings in new batteries could still be possible. Therefore, remanufacturing could be a viable option for improving the sustainability of electric mobility, and (re)manufacturers should consider intensifying their engagement in designing remanufacturable batteries, in research on remanufacturing technologies, and in investing in remanufacturing infrastructure. • Supply of and demand for remanufactured batteries are determined simultaneously. • The model considers incompatibilities between vehicles and remanufactured batteries. • Remanufacturing EV batteries could lower the demand for new batteries. • Frequent changes in battery technology could limit the remanufacturing potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]