Search

Climate change mitigation strategies are developed at international, national, and local authority levels. Technological solutions such as renewable energies (RE) and electric vehicles (EV) have geographically widespread knock-on effects on raw materials. In this paper, a decision-support and data-visualization tool named "LAYERS" is presented, which applies a material flow analysis to illustrate the complex connections along supply chains for carbon technologies. A case study focuses on cobalt for lithium-ion batteries (LIB) required for EVs. It relates real business data from mining and manufacturing to actual EV registrations in the UK to visualize the intended and unintended consequences of the demand for cobalt. LAYERS integrates a geographic information systems (GIS) architecture, database scheme, and whole series of stored procedures and functions. By means of a 3D visualization based on GIS, LAYERS conveys a clear understanding of the location of raw materials (from reserves, to mining, refining, manufacturing, and use) across the globe. This highlights to decision makers the often hidden but far-reaching geo-political implications of the growing demands for a range of raw materials that are needed to meet long-term carbon-reduction targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among existing and emerging technologies to recycle spent lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) from electric vehicles, pyrometallurgical processes are commercially used. However, very little is known about their environmental and energy impacts. In this study, three pyrometallurgical technologies are analyzed and compared in terms of global warming potential (GWP) and cumulative energy demand (CED), namely: an emerging direct current (DC) plasma smelting technology (Sc‐1), the same DC plasma technology but with an additional pre‐treatment stage (Sc‐2), and a more commercially mature ultra‐high temperature (UHT) furnace (Sc‐3). The net impacts for the recovered metals are calculated using both "open‐loop" and "closed‐loop" recycling options. Results reveal that shifting from the UHT furnace technology (Sc‐3) to the DC plasma technology could reduce the GWP of the recycling process by up to a factor of 5 (when employing pre‐treatment, as is the case with Sc‐2). Results also vary across factors, for example, different metal recovery rates, carbon/energy intensity of the electricity grid (in Sc‐1 and Sc‐2), rates of aluminum recovery (in Sc‐2), and sources of coke (in Sc‐3). However, the sensitivity analysis showed that these factors do not change the best option which was determined before (as Sc‐2) except in a few cases for CED. Overall, the research methodology and application presented by this life cycle assessment informs future energy and environmental impact assessment studies that want to assess existing recycling processes of LIB or other emerging technologies. This article met the requirements for a gold–silver JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many cities publish climate change mitigation strategies and other policy measures to support the wide spread uptake of Electric Vehicles (EVs). This paper investigates the effectiveness of these strategies and the provision of infrastructures in 30 UK cities, with a specific emphasis on those strategies that are within the remit of cities and local authorities. The climate mitigation strategies and supporting documents were obtained from 30 UK cities recommended by the Urban Audit Methodology. We show that 13 cities mention EVs in their strategies. Analysing EV registrations and the EV infrastructures that is provided by cities we found that there is no statistical difference in the number of charging points or EVs between the cities that have EVs as part of their climate change mitigation strategy and those that do not. It was shown that EV uptake was more generally associated with other factors (such as local vehicle population or income) rather than any documented EV/climate mitigation strategy. We demonstrate that local strategies are failing in achieving the much needed step change and make suggestions how to improve EV uptake as an even more radical thinking and policies may become necessary to achieve carbon reduction targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• An accelerated EV program is needed to meet 2050 CO2 emission targets for the UK. • Even under accelerated uptake, few CO 2 benefits will be seen before 2030. • The lack of impact before 2030 derives from slow vehicle stock turnover. • With embedded production CO2, 2050 UK targets will need intense grid decarbonisation. • There is an urgent need to pursue both EV uptake and demand side solutions. The decarbonisation of the road transport sector is increasingly seen as a necessary component to meet global and national targets as specified in the Paris Agreement. It may be achieved best by shifting from Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) cars to Electric Vehicles (EVs). However, the transition to a low carbon mode of transport will not be instantaneous and any policy or technological change implemented now will take years to have the desired effect. Within this paper we show how on-road emission factors of EVs and models of embedded CO 2 in the vehicle production may be combined with statistics for vehicle uptake/replacement to forecast future transport emissions. We demonstrate that EVs, when compared to an efficient ICE, provide few benefits in terms of CO 2 mitigation until 2030. However, between 2030 and 2050, predicted CO 2 savings under the different EV uptake and decarbonisation scenarios begin to diverge with larger CO 2 savings seen for the accelerated EV uptake. This work shows that simply focusing on on-road emissions is insufficient to model the future CO 2 impact of transport. Instead a more complete production calculation must be combined with an EV uptake model. Using this extended model, our scenarios show how the lack of difference between a Business as Usual and accelerated EV uptake scenario can be explained by the time-lag in cause and effect between policy changes and the desired change in the vehicle fleet. Our work reveals that current UK policy is unlikely to achieve the desired reduction in transport-based CO 2 by 2030. If embedded CO 2 is included as part of the transport emissions sector, then all possible UK EV scenarios will miss the reduction target for 2050 unless this is combined with intense decarbonisation (80% of 1990 levels) of the UK electricity grid. This result highlights that whilst EVs offer an important contribution to decarbonisation in the transport sector it will be necessary to look at other transport mitigation strategies, such as modal shift to public transit, car sharing and demand management, to achieve both near-term and long-term mitigation targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study provides firstly a comprehensive review of studies on measuring the impacts of different biodiesel blends on exhaust emissions characteristics of urban busses under real-world operating conditions. Secondly, this paper discusses the errors that can be made in conducting case studies. Thirdly and finally, it shows lessons learned and provides guidelines to setup case studies, conduct the measurements, perform the statistical analysis and report the results to policy makers and the wider audience. To achieve climate change mitigation targets, using alternative fuels, e.g., biodiesel, hydrogen or electricty (EVs) for the urban fleets requires an in-depth analysis of the impacts under real-world operating conditions. Such experiments are generally very complex as numerous factors could directly or indirectly interfere with the results produced and potentially jeopardize the integrity of the research and the conclusions drawn. Results of the present research show that some vital parameters were ignored by many of the studies performed including the statistical uncertainties, driving cycle uncertainties and fuel uncertainties. Lack of appropriate experimental designs or clear assertions about the level of significance for differences in emissions/fuel consumption between alternative fuels (i.e. biodiesel) and the reference fuel used (i.e., diesel) could be regarded as the main weaknesses. Moreover, many other overarching and very influential factors (e.g., covariates/confounders) can interfere with the research outcomes as these were mostly overlooked by the reviewed studies. A careful and complete experimental design for assessments of alternative fueled vehicles (are critical when conducting real-world operating condition tests. The study findings help to formulate the guidelines for assessing real-world operating condition experiments to achieve the most feasibly and meaningful research outcomes that will have significant implication for local and global policy makers. The guidelines are of use for all types of research studies that want to evaluate the effects of alternative fuels for any transportation fleet. Image 1 • Real-world driving tests on urban buses were examined and discussed. • Key issues were uncertainties related to statistical design, driving cycle, and fuel. • Lack of appropriate experimental design was the main weakness in most studies. • Covariate/confounder factors were mostly overlooked. • Guidelines to perform more complete real-world diving test studies were presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium-ion Batteries (LIB) are an essential facilitator of the decarbonisation of the transport and energy system, and their high energy densities represent a major technological achievement and resource for humankind. In this research, it has been argued that LIBs have penetrated everyday life faster than our understanding of the risks and challenges associated with them. The current safety standards in the car industry have benefited from over 130 years of evolution and refinement, and Electric Vehicle (EV) and LIB are comparably in their infancy. This paper considers some of the issues of safety over the life cycle of batteries, including: the End of Life disposal of batteries, their potential reuse in a second-life application (e.g. in Battery Energy Storage Systems), recycling and unscheduled End of Life (i.e. accidents). The failure mechanism and reports from a range of global case studies, scenarios and incidents are described to infer potential safety issues and highlight lessons that can be learned. Therefore, the safety risks of LIBs were categorised, and the regularity requirements to create and inform a wider debate on the general safety of LIBs were discussed. From the analysis, a range of gaps in current approaches have been identified and the risk management systems was discussed. Ultimately, it is concluded that robust educational and legal processes are needed to understand and manage the risks for first responders and the public at large to ensure a safe and beneficial transition to low carbon transportation and energy system. [Display omitted] • Reviews and analysis of recent Lithium-ion Battery (LIB) related incidents. • Comprehensive evaluation of the risks around LIBs over their full lifecycle, including second life and recycling. • Provides a categorisation matrix including the "Unscheduled" End-Of-Life (Vehicle Accidents). • Proposes Risk Management Systems for LIBs. • Suggests Best Practice in handling and disposing LIB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]