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Purpose: The international standards ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 do not specify a single method for the performance of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). As a result, many different LCIA methods have been developed and the choice between them is not always obvious. Therefore, the main aim of this research is to systematically compare the most commonly used multi-impact LCIA methods worldwide to support practitioners in confronting the question of how the choice of LCIA method affects the LCA results. Methods: Four LCIA methods: ReCiPe 2016, ILCD 2011, CML-IA baseline and IMPACT 2002+ at the midpoint level were applied to compare the environmental profiles of the electricity consumption mix in the EU-27, Norway, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, taking into account the electricity consumption mix in individual countries. The results of the impact categories were converted into common metrics using unit conversion factors to allow the comparison of the results in absolute values across LCIA methods. Results and discussion: In the LCA study, four common LCIA methods were compared across 12 defined midpoint areas of impacts. Results were consistent for climate change and ozone depletion, with the exception of the ReCiPe 2016 method, and acidification and eutrophication, with the exception of the IMPACT 2002+ method. Significant disparities were noted for ozone formation/respiratory organics, particulate matter/respiratory inorganics ecotoxicity and water consumption. The rankings of environmental profiles remained largely consistent across LCIA methods, with only a few exceptions concerning the following midpoint areas of impacts: ozone formation/respiratory organics, ecotoxicity and resource scarcity (minerals). Contribution analysis highlighted the crucial role of only a few key substances in each area. Conclusions: The methodological choices during LCIA have significant implications for the characterisation results in absolute values, but lead, in most cases, to comparable conclusions on the ranking of environmental profiles of the electricity consumption mix in the EU-27, Norway, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. This results from large methodological discrepancies between LCIA methods, concerning, among others, the geographical differentiation (either the European or global context), the scope of the impact categories grouped into the same midpoint area of impacts (for instance eutrophication) and the contribution of specific environmental flows to a given result of the impact category. Consequently, the findings of this research underpin the importance of careful selection of the LCIA method and impact categories, following the goal and scope definition and unique attributes of each method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union is targeting climate neutrality by 2050, with a focus on enhancing energy efficiency, expanding renewable energy sources, and reducing emissions. Within Italy's electricity mix, bioenergy sources, namely biogas, solid biomass, and bioliquids, play a crucial territorial role. A comparative analysis was conducted through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), utilizing national data from the ARCADIA project, to assess the environmental sustainability of the investigated bioenergy chains and identify the most convenient ones. The study revealed that, among the bioenergy sources, solid biomass emerges as the most environmentally friendly option since it does not rely on dedicated crops. Conversely, biogas shows the highest environmental impact, demonstrating less favorable performance across nine out of the sixteen evaluated impact categories. The LCA underscores that the cultivation of dedicated energy crops significantly contributes to environmental burdens associated with electricity generation, affecting both biogas and bioliquids performance. The cultivation process needs water and chemical fertilizers, leading to adverse environmental effects. These findings highlight the importance of prioritizing residual biomass for energy generation over dedicated crops. Utilizing forestry and agro-industrial residues, municipal solid waste, and used cooking oils presents numerous advantages, including environmental preservation, resource conservation and recovery, as well as waste reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the huge uncertainties related to the possibility of a quick development of nuclear fusion technologies - being disputed that it may come too late to effectively contribute to emission mitigation - research is focusing on a wide set of options for fusion reactors. This paper presents a global scenario analysis using the energy system optimization model EUROfusion TIMES to analyze the possible future role of fusion according to three different technologies and using capacity curves based on historical trends for the electricity sector. The analyzed fusion options are based on ARC, EU-DEMO and Asian-DEMO reactor concepts, characterized in terms of techno-economic features according to publicly available literature and considering a set of educated growth rate for their penetration. Results concerning installed capacity trends and contribution to the electricity mix are presented up to 2100 in three socio-economic storylines and for different scenarios considering either the availability of competing technologies or delays in the development of fusion plants. Despite not contributing at all to the energy transition in Europe and the US, fusion may gain share in contexts characterized by highly growing electricity demand, contributing to satisfy stringent environmental constraints together with other low-carbon technologies in the second half of the century.

This work aims to evaluate the Life Cycle of the current electricity mix (2018, considering Eurostat data) and future (2030, considering European reference scenario) of some European Union member states (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Portugal and Spain), to be compared with the results obtained for the Italian case.The major efforts by the European Commission have been in containing climate-altering emissions: this has been seen in the policies that the different countries considered have adopted. According to the 2030 scenarios, there is an average reduction of 42% in the impacts on Climate change, the best result after acidification (impact category closely linked to the first). Only one country does not show a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions: Belgium. In this country, the end of nuclear power and the increase of imports and gas causes an increase in emissions by 2030.The reduction of Climate change emissions has gone to the detriment of another impact category, the consumption of resources (mineral, fossil and renewable), which has seen an increase in precisely those countries that have reduced CO2 emissions the most: Spain, France and Portugal.

To achieve net zero emissions, the global transportation sector needs to reduce emissions by 90% from 2020 to 2050, and road freight has a significant potential to reduce emissions. In this context, emission reduction paths should be explored for road freight over the fuel life cycle. Based on panel data from 2015 to 2020 in China, China's version of the GREET model was established to evaluate the impact of crude oil mix, electricity mix, and vehicle technology on China's reduction in road freight emissions. The results show that the import share of China's crude oil has increased from 2015 to 2020, resulting in an increase in the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensity of ICETs in the well-to-tank (WTT) stage by 7.3% in 2020 compared with 2015. Second, the share of China's coal-fired electricity in the electricity mix decreased from 2015 to 2020, reducing the GHG emission intensity of battery electric trucks (BETs), by approximately 6.5% in 2020 compared to 2015. Third, different vehicle classes and types of BETs and fuel cell electric trucks (FCETs) have different emission reduction effects, and their potentials for energy-saving and emission reduction at various stages of the fuel life cycle are different. In addition, in a comparative study of vehicle technology, the results show that (1) for medium-duty trucks (MDTs) and heavy-duty trucks (HDTs), FCETs have lower GHG emission intensity than BETs, and replacing diesel-ICETs can significantly reduce GHG emissions from road freight; (2) for light-duty trucks (LDTs), BETs and FCETs have the highest GHG emission reduction potential; thus, improving technologies such as electricity generation, hydrogen fuel production, hydrogen fuel storage, and transportation will help to improve the emission reduction capabilities of BETs and FCETs. Therefore, policymakers should develop emission standards for road freight based on vehicle class, type, and technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intermittency of wind and solar productions raises the concern of finding other sources of electricity to match the consumption when an hibernal anticyclone reduces dramatically wind production. In this situation occurring every year the stress on the grid is at maximum with the consumption at a peak and a low photovoltaic production. Despite these risks, scenarios still aim at high shares of wind and solar in the electricity mix of 2050, assuming that different wind regimes in Europe would allow France to import wind productions from its neighbors when in need. The study considers a typical situation given by hourly wind productions of the first two months of 2020, in France and in the closest countries. Assuming a full renewable electricity mix officially envisioned in France and Germany for 2050, the exchanges are computed and illustrated for the two months, with a focus on an anticyclone which occurred in the second part of January. The exchanges will not solve the shortage in France and it could even worsen it. The 50-50 renewable and nuclear scenario is given for comparison, showing that the solution lies in providing adequate secured power plant capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Local waste biomass utilization for electricity generation may have significant impact on global warming mitigation. This study investigates the electricity generation capacity of select counties in Mississippi (MS) and determines the fossil fuel offsets that can be achieved through electricity generation from wood biomass residues. Results suggest that selected counties in MS have the potential to completely or partially replace the existing electricity supplier promoting energy independence and security using wood residues as feedstock with an average nominal and real LCOE (Levelized cost of electricity) values of 12.77 cents/kWh and 10.87 cents/kWh, respectively. This can reduce the GHG emissions and their contribution towards global warming from the fossil fuel percentage of electricity mix supplied to the counties. Furthermore, the avoided CO 2 eq emissions resulted in significant carbon tax savings when imposed on MS. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the electricity output is dependent mainly on the feedstock availability while other factors such as conversion efficiency, and boiler parameters have shown significant impact. Results from parametric analysis showed that the feedstock availability had highest impact on the annual electricity output and price ($/ton) of the feedstock type had high impact on LCOE. This investigation aids in promoting sustainable energy systems development via renewable energy integration in the electricity mix of Mississippi, US. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More stringent standards for engines and fuels are progressively implemented as alternatives to reduce on-road vehicle emissions. While electric vehicles appear as a perfect alternative since their engines do not emit pollutants, wear and dust resuspension (W&R) and indirect emissions associated with electricity production remain significant sources of pollution. This work compares well-to-wheel emissions (WTW) and abatement strategies for various types of passenger vehicles in Bogotá and Santiago for different pollutants (CO, PM2.5, SO2, and NOx) and greenhouse gases like CO2 equivalent (CO2-Eq). Results show that WTW baseline emissions are more extensive in Bogotá than in Santiago (i.e., 58 and 30% for PM2.5 and CO2-Eq), mainly due to the higher vehicle activity and older state of Bogotá's fleet. We also evaluated extreme scenarios to assess the potential of a given vehicle technology or energy source to reduce emissions. We assessed, in particular, the replacement of all current vehicles by (1) conventional technologies with stricter emission standards and (2) battery electric vehicles powered with different energy resources. Our results indicate that replacing the current fleet with modern combustion technologies has a lower reduction potential than battery electric vehicles, but these reductions largely depend on the energy mix. Substitution by electric vehicles powered with electricity from renewable energies is the most efficient scenario in both cities. Finally, results also stress the importance of the resuspension of deposited road dust and brake and tire wear emissions in both cities as a crucial source of PM2.5, which must be better controlled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very high temperature heat pumps (VHTHP) have begun to emerge on the market during the past decade, providing an alternative to fuel-fire boilers for generating industrial process heat up to 200 °C. Large temperature lifts are common for VHTHPs, resulting in a reduced coefficient of performance (COP) compared to traditional heat pumps. Thus, the economic feasibility of operating VHTHPs becomes more dependent on local price conditions, and the environmental impact is affected by increased electricity usage. Both the economics and the environmental impact of operating industrial VHTHPs in place of fossil fuel-fired boilers in Europe are studied in this article. Discounted payback periods are estimated for the varying price conditions in Europe, and life cycle assessment tools are used to quantify the environmental impact of operating VHTHPs. Finland, Sweden, and Denmark were found to be ideal countries for VHTHP deployment, as they showcase both favorable economic conditions as well as generally small environmental impacts in the endpoint categories Human health, Climate change, and Resource usage, if local grid electricity is used. The effect on the endpoint category Ecosystem impacts was generally larger for most countries, including the aforementioned three, mostly due to the use of biomass in the electricity grid. • Industrial Very High Temperature Heat Pump (VHTHP) operation in Europe was studied. • Life Cycle Assessment was used to quantify the environmental impact of operation. • Renewable electricity grids are crucial for VHTHPs to be environmentally preferable. • A 96 % reduction in CO 2 -eq emissions is possible compared to natural gas boilers. • Finland, Sweden, and Denmark have ideal conditions for industrial VHTHP operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The electricity and heat sectors are reported to contribute approximately 40% of total CO2 emissions from the energy sector in Indonesia. Nonetheless, Indonesia is composed of several interconnected electricity-grid networks with different characteristics. This study was conducted to identify the life cycle inventories (LCIs) and perform a life cycle assessment (LCA) to determine the potential environmental impacts of electricity distributed in the Jamali grid network, contributing to 72% of the total electricity produced in Indonesia. Methods: An LCA was conducted with a functional unit of 1 kWh of electricity generated and transmitted in the distribution line in the Jamali grid network in 2018. The system boundary used in this study was cradle-to-gate, covering fuel production and transportation, electricity generation, and electricity distribution. The LCIs were gathered for each power plant's technology connected to the grid, which includes fuel consumption, fuel-related wastes, infrastructure, land use, water use, and air emissions. The following impact categories were assessed: global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), photochemical oxidation potential (POX), abiotic depletion potential (ADP), abiotic depletion potential–fossil fuels (ADF), and water scarcity footprint (WSF). Methods used to calculate those categories include IPCC GWP 100a, CML-IA (Baseline and Non-baseline), ReCiPe, and AWARE. Results and discussion: LCI analysis showed that the subcritical coal-fired power plants contributed to the highest electricity generation (58.80%), energy consumption (89.39%), and CO2 production (70.52%) among other technologies connected to the grid. Subsequently, for every 1 kWh of electricity distributed in the grid, the power plants' operation produced the largest GWP, AP, and POX. Each category produced a total of 1.06 kg CO2 eq., 5.89 × 10−03 kg SO2 eq, and 4.08 × 10−03 kg NMVOC, respectively. The EP and ADF produced were 2.62 × 10−03 kg PO4 eq. and 1.58 × 101 MJ, respectively, mainly resulting from coal mining. ADP produced was 2.30 × 10−05 kg Sb eq. and WSF produced was 3.8 × 10−02 m3, both majorly contributed by the production of transmission and distribution grid materials. Conclusions: LCA performed to determine the potential environmental impacts from the electricity distributed in the Jamali grid showed that the electricity produced from subcritical coal-fired power plants dominated the electricity mix in 2018. Subsequently, it contributed significantly to multiple impact categories, namely GWP, AP, and POX. Reducing the use of subcritical coal-fired power plants is thus essential to reduce the environmental impacts, which is aligned with the Indonesian government's plan to reach net-zero emissions by 2060. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nuclear power can replace fossil fuels and will have a decisive impact on the change in the approach to conventional energy. However, nuclear (or radioactive) wastes are produced by the operation of the nuclear reactors should be safely and properly disposed of. This paper assesses the uranium resources and the global state of nuclear power plants and determines the energy mixes in different countries using the most nuclear energy. Furthermore, this paper analysed the nuclear waste management and disposal and the depletion of abiotic resources, and the primary energy sources of a basic production process using electricity mix and nuclear electricity for a basic production (PET bottle manufacturing) process. The life cycle assessment was completed by applying the GaBi 8.0 (version 10.6) software and the CML method. In this study, we limit our discussion to high-level nuclear waste (HLW) and spent nuclear fuel (SNF) waste. We do not consider waste generated from uranium mining and milling, which is usually disposed of in near-surface impoundments close to the mine or the mill. The investigation of waste management methods is limited to European countries. This research work is relevant because determining abiotic resources is important in a life cycle assessment and current literature available on LCA analysis for nuclear powers remains under-developed. These results can guide and compare manufacturing processes involving a nuclear electricity and electricity grid mix input. The results of this research can be used to develop production processes using nuclear energy with lower abiotic depletion impacts. This research work facilitates the industry in making predictions for a production-scale plant using an LCA of production processes with nuclear energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground-coupled heat pump (GCHP) systems can provide comfortable indoor environments, but also inevitably contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and other impacts on human health, ecosystems, and resources. Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology has been widely adopted to estimate the environmental impacts associated with GCHP systems, with operational electricity consumption being the largest contributor among most categories. Given the data-intensive nature of LCA, operational electricity consumption should be prioritised to refine the accuracy of LCA results. Previous studies, however, have relied on static COP (Coefficient of Performance) and annual average data to obtain the environmental impacts and have disregarded the effect of long-term performance degradation caused by building thermal load imbalances. In this paper, to bridge this research gap, a dynamic operational environmental impact assessment (DOEIA) method was proposed to improve the precision of LCA results by incorporating higher temporal resolution data of electricity mix and real-time performance modelling of the reversible GCHP system. Impacts of different temporal resolutions (i.e. monthly, trimestral, and annual) on the accuracy of LCA results was examined and the operational performance degradation resulting from imbalanced building heating and cooling loads was considered. Results demonstrate that while performance degradation effects are evenly distributed across impact categories, gaps due to temporal resolutions vary significantly between different categories. Subsequent analysis of spatial variations in the latter further emphasises the importance of accounting for higher temporal resolutions. Finally, life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results for reversible GCHP systems in different locations were obtained with the support of DOEIA method and the results underscore the necessity of a cleaner energy mix. The proposed DOEIA method can be applied to other energy systems for comparative analyses. It is replicable in other countries and regions and therefore is expected to provide methodological guidance for future decision-makers. • Development of a dynamic method to improve the accuracy of LCA of GCHP systems. • Evaluated long-term performance degradation and low-temporal resolution data effects. • Performance degradation affects categories consistently; low-resolution data varies. • Spatial analysis clarifies parameters affecting environmental impacts. • The proposed method is applicable to other energy systems for comparative analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assesses the performance of Egypt's energy system on a short-term basis to ensure that it can handle a high share of renewable energy, as predicted in the long-term planning up to 2040. PLEXOS software is used for short-term analysis to simulate operational performance on an hourly basis while considering the constraints of Unit Commitment (UC) and Economic Dispatch (ED). The long-term energy planning model, which covered the years 2020–2040 with chosen representative years (2020 as the base year and 2025, 2030, 2035, and 2040), was validated by the short-term operational model. The results from the short-term analysis indicate that by the year 2040, 69.5 % of the electricity mix from renewable energy sources (excluding hydro) can be accommodated, representing a slightly lower capacity than the 70 % predicted by the long-term plan. Due to the high share of intermittent renewable energy sources, traditional generators will experience excessive cycling in 2040. The average weighted short-run marginal cost in 2040 is projected to be 7.8 USD/MWh, compared to 18.37 USD/MWh in 2020, due to the low operating costs of renewable energy plants and their high penetration in 2040. Various operational techniques have been suggested to reduce the curtailment of renewable energy to achieve only 1.2 % of the total energy generation of the system by 2040. Additionally, other adjustments to the system operation are being considered to maintain a balance in the power system on a short-term basis. • Short-term analysis is carried out to validate the long-term planning. • Five milestone years are analyzed on hourly basis to simulate the operational characteristics of the Egyptian power system. • The study covers all operational constrains of the Egyptian power system in terms of a copper plate grid. • High penetration of renewable energy led to serving 69.5 % of the load demand using renewable energy. • Short run marginal cost in 2040 is 7.8 USD/MWh, which is very low compared with the 2020 cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Machine tools are the equipment used for the cutting and shaping of materials, like metals, which generate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across their life cycles due to material use and energy consumption. The life cycle emissions of machine tools are distributed over time and may vary with technology advancement. This paper aims to incorporate these temporal factors into the global warming impact (GWI) assessment of machine tools and further reveal their influences on the results. Method: Incorporating emission time into the GWI assessment of machine tools is based on the following dynamic life cycle assessment (LCA) framework. First, compute temporally differentiated GHGs of machine tools based on the activity-based modeling. And then, use time-dependent characterization factors (CFs), which are developed based on the radiative forcing concept, to assess their GWI. By using this framework, a dynamic life cycle GWI assessment of machine tool is conducted using two gear hobbing machines. Both the emission time and the potential changes of life cycle emissions due to the improvement of electricity mix and the variation of machine tool use modes are considered. Results and discussion: The results demonstrated that when the emission time was considered, both machines offered 3% of reduction of GWI, compared with their static results, respectively. Further reductions were found for the two machines, when the electricity improvement and the changes of the machine tool use modes were considered. All the differences between the static and the dynamic environmental impact results become smaller with the extension of the time horizons (THs) that accounted for the evaluation. Conclusions and recommendations: The conventional static LCA has the potential to overestimate the real GWI of machine tools. It is more important to account for the emission time in GWI assessment at shorter THs or for a longer lifetime of machine tools. This work offers a method to dynamically assess the real GWI of machine tools. The proposed method helps to make robust decision-making for environmentally friendly machine tool selection and support sustainable production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: An estimation of the environmental impact of buildings by means of a life cycle assessment (LCA) raises uncertainty related to the parameters that are subject to major changes over longer time spans. The main aim of the present study is to evaluate the influence of modifications in the electricity mix and the production efficiency in the chosen reference year on the embodied impacts (i.e., greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions) of building materials and components and the possible impact of this on future refurbishment measures. Methods: A new LCA methodological approach was developed and implemented that can have a significant impact on the way in which existing buildings are assessed at the end of their service lives. The electricity mixes of different reference years were collected and assessed, and the main datasets and sub-datasets were modified according to the predefined substitution criteria. The influence of the electricity-mix modification and production efficiency were illustrated on a selected existing reference building, built in 1970. The relative contribution of the electricity mix to the embodied impact of the production phase was calculated for four different electricity mixes, with this comprising the electricity mix from 1970, the current electricity mix and two possible future electricity-mix scenarios for 2050. The residual value of the building was also estimated. Results and discussion: In the case presented, the relative share of the electricity mix GHG emission towards the total value was as high as 20% for separate building components. If this electricity mix is replaced with an electricity mix having greater environmental emissions, the relative contribution of the electricity mix to the total emissions can be even higher. When, by contrast, the modified electricity mix is almost decarbonized, the relative contribution to the total emissions may well be reduced to a point where it becomes negligible. The modification of the electricity mix can also influence the residual value of a building. In the observed case, the differences due to different electricity mixes were in the range of 10%. Conclusions: It was found that those parameters that are subject to a major change during the reference service period of the building should be treated dynamically in order to obtain reliable results. Future research is foreseen to provide additional knowledge concerning the influence of dynamic parameters on both the use phase and the end-of-life phase of buildings, and these findings will also be important when planning future refurbishment measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The provided data are the hourly CO2-eq emission factors, and the hourly conversion factors for the cumulative energy demand and its non-renewable part for the Swiss electricity mix over one year (2016 and 2017). These data have been assessed on the base of an inventory of the technology used for electricity generation and an attributional life-cycle approach according to the methodology presented in Vuarnoz and Jusselme (2018). Compared with Vuarnoz and Jusselme [2], electricity imports from Italy to Switzerland are not neglected anymore, and lead to more accurate output data. The utility of the proposed data lies in the multiple possible applications. The presented data are necessary for conducting a life cycle assessment of all processes and products using electricity in Switzerland. Moreover, the presented data could serve as a sustainable benchmark of electricity when implementing renewable energy systems and energy storage [7]. Because of their temporal accuracy, the hourly conversion factors enable the development of energy management strategies taking into account the time-dependent life cycle impacts. Finally, they can be used for the quantitative follow-up of the decarbonization process of the grid electricity at the national level over a given lapse of time.

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Efforts are driven to fast-track energy transition for more energy security, resilience, and affordable energy for all. A major objective in implementing the transition to renewable energies is the overall reduction of the global warming potential (GWP). Therefore, it is important to investigate key parameters that can reduce the GWP of renewable energy technologies even further. In this study, the GWP of a state-of-the-art, market-dominating passivated emitter and rear cell (PERC) in a glass-backsheet photovoltaic (PV) module based on Czochralski (Cz) grown silicon wafers is explored to determine the influence of up-to-date electricity mix of the production location, the installation location as well as the lifetime. This comprehensive analysis showed a GWP reduction potential of approximately 62% only through strategic planning of the upstream production location of each life cycle phase. Additionally, approximately 58% of the GWP reduction potential is observed by changing the downstream installation location and lifetime of the PV modules. Furthermore, this study promotes and provides guidelines for modelling the correct electricity mix in the correct voltage composition, which is important to precisely portray time representativeness of the grid electricity in LCA of any production process but rarely used in practice. Lastly, the study provides opportunities for solar cell manufacturers to create a more sustainable product by strategically reducing their product's GWP through changes in the electricity mix of the supply chain location. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the effect of recognizing co-firing coal with biomass as renewable electricity. We provide simulations for the French and German electricity mix. Results indicate that, if co-firing is recognized as a renewable, coal may crowd-out traditional renewables with increased generation and additional investments. Regarding CO2 emissions, we find surges when co-firing is recognized as a renewable. The rise is more significant in Germany due to greater coal capacity. In France, the magnitude depends on the share of nuclear with a lower increase when old nuclear plants are prolonged. Finally, we find that recognizing co-firing as a renewable reduces the overall costs for electricity. We balance the cost saving with the increased social cost from higher CO2 emissions. Results show that the cost saving is lower than the increased carbon cost for society with carbon valuation around 100 Euros/tCO2, except in France when old nuclear plants are not decommissioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In August 2019, a new bus fleet of 36 electric and 58 hybrid buses were implemented in Trondheim, Norway. This paper examines the carbon footprint of electrified city buses, by addressing the achieved and potential reduction for the new bus fleet. Important aspects such as geographical location of production, charging electricity mix, and impact from production and operation on lifetime emissions, are also examined. A meta-analysis on life cycle assessment studies was undertaken to investigate greenhouse gas emissions and energy demand in different parts of bus production. This is followed by the production of a bus model using the findings and comparing electrified buses with diesel and HVO buses. The models were then used in a case study of the bus fleet in Trondheim, to understand the specific parameters affecting the carbon footprint. The results show that the overall carbon footprint has been considerably reduced (37%) by implementing biofuel and electrified buses, and that a further reduction of 52% can be achieved through full electrification. The operation emissions for the fleet were found to be 49 g CO2-eq/person-km, which is lower than the average city bus and passenger car in Norway.

Energy transitions around the world will change the spatial fingerprint of the electricity sector, but there is a lack of studies on citizen preferences for siting the future mix of electricity technologies. Using the case of Switzerland in 2035, we present a serious board game to form and elicit citizen preferences for spatial siting of a full mix of electricity technologies and we test this game with 44 participants in the city of Zurich. The game proves to help elicit valid preferences of the participants and lead to measurable learning effects about this complex, multi-dimensional topic. The results show that these 44 participants prefer a diverse mix of renewable technologies for Switzerland in 2035. In terms of siting, these participants consistently choose the efficiency strategy, where new plants are concentrated in the areas where they produce most electricity at least cost, in contrast to the strategy of regional equity, where all Swiss regions would equally build new generation and share the benefits and burdens of the energy transition.

In this paper, we analyze the sensitivity of the optimal mixes to cost and variability associated with solar technologies and examine the role of Thermal Energy Storage (TES) combined to Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) together with time-space complementarity in reducing the adequacy risk—imposed by variable Renewable Energies (RE)—on the Moroccan electricity system. To do that, we model the optimal recommissioning of RE mixes including Photovoltaic (PV), wind energy and CSP without or with increasing levels of TES. Our objective is to maximize the RE production at a given cost, but also to limit the variance of the RE production stemming from meteorological fluctuations. This mean-variance analysis is a bi-objective optimization problem that is implemented in the E4CLIM modeling platform—which allows us to use climate data to simulate hourly Capacity Factors (CFs) and demand profiles adjusted to observations. We adapt this software to Morocco and its four electrical zones for the year 2018, add new CSP and TES simulation modules, perform some load reduction diagnostics, and account for the different rental costs of the three RE technologies by adding a maximum-cost constraint. We find that the risk decreases with the addition of TES to CSP, the more so as storage is increased keeping the mean capacity factor fixed. On the other hand, due to the higher cost of CSP compared to PV and wind, the maximum-cost constraint prevents the increase of the RE penetration without reducing the share of CSP compared to PV and wind and letting the risk increase in return. Thus, if small level of risk and higher penetrations are targeted, investment must be increased to install more CSP with TES. We also show that regional diversification is key to reduce the risk and that technological diversification is relevant when installing both PV and CSP without storage, but less so as the surplus of energy available for TES is increased and the CSP profiles flatten. Finally, we find that, thanks to TES, CSP is more suited than PV and wind to meet peak loads. This can be measured by the capacity credit, but not by the variance-based risk, suggesting that the latter is only a crude representation of the adequacy risk.

Electric vehicles, when coupled to electricity generation from renewable energy sources, can become a viable solution to decarbonize the transport sector. However, given the high variability of electricity mixes on a daily and seasonal basis, high-resolution profiles are needed for a precise analysis of the impacts of electric vehicles in terms of greenhouse gases emissions. This paper presents a comparison of different charging profiles evaluated on 10 European countries over four years, to highlight the effects of national electricity mixes and of the type of charging location on the specific emissions of EVs charging. This study, based on three archetypal charging profiles, provide a quantification of the potential influence of different charging strategies on the average emission factor of the electricity supplied to electric vehicles. The results show that the variability related to charging profiles is generally limited, with an average variation range of 6% for any given country and year, while in several countries the variability from one year to another is much larger, with an average range of 18% for any given country and charging profile.

Abstract Electricity is considered the most versatile form of energy derived from commonly used primary source of energy; fossil fuels. Sri Lanka forecast 6.5% annual growth in the demand for electricity, where the recent generation mix (in 2016) comprised of 25% hydro power, 31% oil, 35% coal and 9% renewables, with continued growth in wind and solar energy systems. The national Energy Policy targeted to reach minimum 10% of the demand for gird electricity using non-conventional renewable energy by 2015, and the policy now is to use only renewable energy sources for electricity generation by 2050 through installing large scale wind, solar and biomass power plants. In the path to achieve this growth and transformation, the challenge is to use resources and materials with minimum environmental consequences and damages in construction, operation and deconstruction phases of power plants. This paper looks in to possible environmental consequences, based on life cycle analysis, arising out of different electricity generation mixes comprising thermal, hydro, wind and solar energy. The study shows that, in meeting the electricity demand in 2050 using either solar or wind power alone, or through a mix of the two, would have adverse environmental impacts on freshwater and marine ecotoxicity, urban land occupation, metal depletion, agricultural land occupation and natural land transformation, whereas hydropower adds impact towards water depletion too. It is evident from the results that, in Sri Lanka, future electricity generation mix between wind and solar energy has to be determined mainly considering the land occupation and metal depletion impact categories. Further, the results point to the essential need for a national integrated waste management policy in decommissioning power plants; existing fossil fueled power plants and new large scale solar and wind based power plants, to avoid more adverse environmental impacts associated with decommissioning of different types of power plants. Highlights • The study is about environmental impacts of electricity generation in Sri Lanka. • The evaluation is based on life cycle assessment. • This work discusses environmental merits and demerits of different generation mixes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Electric vehicles (EVs) are the future of road transport in both Poland and the Czech Republic and offer significant potential for reducing air pollution and increasing life comfort, especially in crowded city centers. This paper presents a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of EVs in Poland and the Czech Republic, considering the life cycle from cradle to grave, with a special focus on the production of the electricity required to charge EV batteries. The analyses included the current and future energy systems (from 2015 to 2050) used to charge EV batteries in the both countries. A comparative analysis of EVs and passenger vehicles with internal combustion engines (ICEVs) was carried out. In addition, the analyses considered scenarios of smart grids from which the energy for the charging of EV batteries could be supplied exclusively from renewable sources. The results showed that the environmental burden of current and future EVs is higher in Poland than in the Czech Republic for all analyzed impact categories and that this result is primarily related to the type of electricity used to charge EV batteries. The comparative analysis of EVs and ICEVs showed that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and fossil fuel depletion in Poland and the Czech Republic, both at present and in the future, will be lower in the case of EVs than in the case of ICEVs. However, the acidification, eutrophication, human toxicity, and particulate matter formation caused by EVs are higher than those caused by ICEVs. The results showed that EVs coupled with renewable electricity sources offer the potential to reduce the negative impacts on the environment. It was concluded that the main determinant of the environmental impact of EVs is the type of electricity used to charge EV batteries. This is the first attempt at a comparative LCA of EVs in Poland and the Czech Republic. It is also the first approach that includes analyses of the LCA for both the present and future electricity production systems used for charging EV batteries. Highlights • The environmental performance of EVs in Poland and the Czech Republic was assessed. • The main sources affecting EV environmental performance were analyzed. • A comparative LCA of electric and internal combustion vehicles was conducted. • LCA of EV charging with exclusively renewable sources was performed. • The study showed the importance of the energy sources used to charge EV batteries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Decarbonization of electricity generation is crucial especially for energy‐intensive technologies such as steel mill gas‐based methanol production. The Energy System Development Plan is able to forecast the contribution of electricity producers to the power mix in a quarter‐hourly resolution. Integration of this forecasts in life cycle assessment enables to prospectively assess the impact on climate change of steel mill gas‐based methanol production. The analysis shows that if using power in hours with a high share of renewable energy, the global warming impact of steel mill gas‐based methanol production can be lowered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessment of carbon emissions and environmental impact of production is indispensable to achieve a sustainable industrial production in Turkey, especially for those companies willing to compete in new international green markets. In this case study, corporate carbon footprint of a representative Turkish tanning company was analyzed. Inventory and impact data are presented to help in the environmental decision-making process. The results indicate that significant environmental impacts were caused during the landfilling of solid wastes as well as the production of the electricity and fuel required in the tannery. Turkish tannery inventory data presented here for the first time will be useful for leather tanning company managers to calculate sustainability key indicators. Improving alternatives at country level were identified (increasing the renewable sources on electricity production and promote energy recovery in landfills) which would be useful not only to decrease greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of tanning sector but also of other industries requiring electricity and producing organic wastes. Considering the substantial contribution of industrial processes to the Turkish carbon emissions (15.7%) (TUIK, 2013), work done on those areas would provide a sound improvement in environmental profile of Turkey. The importance to promote a national strategy to reduce GHG emissions in Turkey was discussed here, as well as its relation to corporate carbon footprint assessments. One of the significant points revealed from the case study is the lack of published country specific emission factors for Turkey, which is a fundamental prerequisite to promote corporate carbon footprint assessment within the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life Cycle assessments (LCAs) on electric mobility are providing a plethora of diverging results. 44 articles, published from 2008 to 2018 have been investigated in this review, in order to find the extent and the reason behind this deviation. The first hurdle can be found in the goal definition, followed by the modelling choice, as both are generally incomplete and inconsistent. These gaps influence the choices made in the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) stage, particularly in regards to the selection of the electricity mix. A statistical regression is made with results available in the literature. It emerges that, despite the wide-ranging scopes and the numerous variables present in the assessments, the electricity mix's carbon intensity can explain 70% of the variability of the results. This encourages a shared framework to drive practitioners in the execution of the assessment and policy makers in the interpretation of the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Foods and drinks are major contributors (17%) to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by private consumption in Europe. The carbon footprint (CF) of a certain product expresses the total GHG emissions over its whole life cycle, and its calculation for foodstuff is a necessary first step to reduce their contribution to global warming. The calculation of the CF of Maltese food products is especially relevant for two reasons: the economic characteristics of the island, whose food sector is highly dependent on imports, implying longer transport distances; and the Maltese electricity production mix, based almost exclusively on oil combustion. Methods and results The CF of ten multi-fruit juices marketed in Malta has been determined, covering all the processes from the agricultural stage to the distribution of the final products. As a functional unit (FU), a 250 ml bottle of packaged product arriving at the retailer has been considered. The Maltese orange juice, the only final product in which only local ingredients are used, presents the lowest CF (0.50 kgCO 2 /FU), while the remaining ones range from 0.67 kgCO 2 /FU to 0.80 kgCO 2 /FU. The major contributor to all the CFs is juice processing at the Maltese plant (0.42 kgCO 2 /FU), mainly due to the use of electricity (78%). Conclusions The influence of both the electricity mix and the Maltese supply chain in the CF of the final products has been demonstrated. Alternatives to reduce the impacts of the final products have been proposed and evaluated that could lower the average CF of the juices by 32%. Significance and impact of the study The calculation of the CF of Maltese juices represents an innovative case study due to the characteristics of the island, and it is expected to act as a first step to lower their environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synergic adoption of diverse measures and consideration of multiple uncertainties are essential for electric power systems to achieve carbon neutrality. To fill the research gap, an interval double-stochastic carbon-neutral electric power system planning (abbreviated as IDS-CEP) model is developed. In the IDS-CEP model, reduction measures include electricity mix improvement, CO 2 capture, transport, and storage (including monoethanolamine absorption and membrane separation), CO 2 direct air capture (containing solid adsorption technique and liquid adsorption technique), ecosystem carbon sinks (forest, farmland, and ocean); uncertainties involve stochastic electricity demand, CO 2 emission allowance, CO 2 emission coefficient, and other interval parameters, which are quantified as forty-five scenarios and three levels. Through the application in Fujian province (China), results disclose that: (i) combination of the reduction measures would help Fujian achieve carbon neutrality with minimized system cost by 2060, their contributions could averagely be ranked as electricity mix improvement (70.75%) > forest (6.03%) > monoethanolamine absorption (5.98%) > farmland (4.53%) > solid adsorption technique (3.83%) > membrane separation (3.45%) > ocean (3.35%) > liquid adsorption technique (2.08%); (ii) to guarantee electricity supply, total installed capacity should be expanded to [156.16, 197.78]GW, where low-carbon electricity (especially nuclear, wind and photovoltaic electricity) installed capacity would occupy [74.68, 76.66]% by conducting electricity mix improvement to reduce CO 2 emission; (iii) the changes in electricity mix structure would lead to decreased water utilization (by [48.57, 61.54]%) and pollutant emissions (by [77.00, 87.35]%); (iv) uncertainties would significantly affect decisions about electricity generation and CO 2 - emission reduction, resulting in varied system costs (in a wide interval of [6.07, 9.16] × 1012 RMB¥). Authorities can choose appropriate schemes according to their risk attitudes towards uncertainties. Results provide scientific planning support for Fujian's electricity generation sector; meanwhile, the IDS-CEP model can also be used in other regions by updating data information. [Display omitted] • An interval double-stochastic method for electric power systems' carbon neutrality. • System is demand-satisfying, resource-saving, clean-air, carbon-neutral by 2060. • Resulting in 45 sets of electricity supply and 135 sets of carbon reduction plans. • Cost is in an interval of [6.07, 9.16] × 1012 RMB¥ because of the varied plans. • Electricity mix, CO 2 capture, CO 2 sinks contribute 70%, 16%, 14% to neutrality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research work aims at a multinational study in Europe of the emissions and energy costs generated by the operation of low enthalpy geothermal systems, with heat pumps fed by different energy sources. From an economic point of view, natural gas and biogas prices are, usually, lower than electricity ones. So it may be advantageous to use these energy sources to feed the heat pumps instead of electricity. From the environmental point of view, it is intended to highlight the fact that under certain conditions of electricity production (electricity mix), more CO2 emissions are produced by electricity consumption than using other a priori less “clean” energy sources such as natural gas. To establish the countries where each of the different heat pumps may be more cost-efficient and environmentally friendly, data from multi-source geospatial databases have been collected and analyzed. The results show that in the majority of cases, the electric heat pump is the most recommendable solution. However, there are some geographic locations (such as Poland and Estonia), where the gas engine heat pump may be a better alternative.

For a successful transition to low-carbon electricity supply, public support is essential. Citizen preferences are best understood in the process of informed citizen panels, where citizens are informed about the pros and cons of various electricity technologies and spend time reflecting on the trade-offs. We investigated how information about electricity technologies and their sustainability impacts can change citizens’ preferences and affect for the complete Swiss electricity mix 2035. The citizens received information as factsheets and, during workshops, discussed in groups and built their preferred electricity mix using an interactive tool. The informed citizen panel (N = 33) in the Swiss city of Geneva showed high support for domestic renewable technologies and end-use efficiency, as well as low support for net electricity import, natural gas, and nuclear power. Preferences and affect for unfamiliar technologies changed after receiving information and remained stable even in the longer term four weeks after. Preferences and affect for already familiar technologies, like hydropower, barely changed. The same procedure in the two Swiss cities of Geneva and Zurich (N = 46) enabled the identification of robust support for renewable technologies and efficiency with only minor context-specific differences.

In Europe, ethanol is blended with gasoline fuel in 5 or 10% volume (E5 or E10). In USA the blend is 15% in volume (E15) and there are also pumps that provide E85. In Brazil, the conventional gasoline is E27 and there are pumps that offer E100, due to the growing market of flex fuel vehicles. Bioethanol production is usually by means of biological conversion of several biomass feedstocks (first generation sugar cane in Brazil, corn in the USA, sugar beet in Europe, or second-generation bagasse of sugarcane or lignocellulosic materials from crop wastes). The environmental sustainability of the bioethanol is usually measured by the global warming potential metric (GWP in CO2eq), 100 years time horizon. Reviewed values could range from 0.31 to 5.55 gCO2eq/LETOH. A biomass-to-ethanol industrial scenario was used to evaluate the impact of methodological choices on CO2eq: conventional versus dynamic Life Cycle Assessment; different impact assessment methods (TRACI, IPCC, ILCD, IMPACT, EDIP, and CML); electricity mix of the geographical region/country for different factory locations; differences in CO2eq factor for CH4 and N2O due to updates in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports (5 reports so far), different factory operational lifetimes and future improved productivities. Results showed that the electricity mix (factory location) and land use are the factors that have the greatest effect (up to 800% deviation). The use of the CO2 equivalency factors stated in different IPCC reports has the least influence (less than 3%). The consideration of the biogenic emissions (uptake at agricultural stage and release at the fermentation stage) and different allocation methods is also influential, and each can make values vary by 250%.

Today's quickly changing world forces society to deal with uncertainties that produce high levels of environmental, social, and economic risks, thereby jeopardizing sustainable development. Portfolio optimisation is an effective tool for formally dealing with such uncertainties, because the social and private optimum is not found by analysing cost/returns and risks of individual assets, projects, actions or plans, but rather requires analysing them all together in the form of a portfolio. This paper presents a review of portfolio optimisation applications from the perspective of energy regulation in an attempt to guide the electricity sector towards sustainable development. Liberalized electricity markets have different sources of uncertainties, ranging from the traditional (e.g. fuel prices, electricity demand, and resource availability, etc.) to the latest sources of risks linked to a society that is more concerned about sustainability. We have found multiple research opportunities, especially in spatial modelling, transmission, and renewable generation, as well as others related to new social and environmental impacts and risks. The portfolio literature available to date excessively simplifies the power system. Supply, demand, and transmission modelling in portfolio analysis are not consistent with planning models, and therefore produce conflicting results. Additionally, despite abundant literature that analyses renewable complementarity, actual portfolio optimisation models ignore this effect, which leads to suboptimum portfolios. Environmental and social costs and risks, such as air and water pollution, land use, community values, and public opposition, among others, have also been ignored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The electricity mix in Tunisia mainly relied on conventional energy sources for over 50 years. Recently, due to fossil fuel prices oscillations and national reserves shortage, the need arose for restructuring the energy supply system. Targeting the integration of renewable energies could be a plan for satisfying the increasing demand and the supply independence. However, several macroeconomic conditions and policies present barriers for the integration of Renewable Energy Sources (RES), despite their abundance, availability and environmental benefits. This paper presents a long-term model of Tunisia electricity system, based on OSeMOSYS (Open Source energy MOdelling SYStem), aimed at unveiling potential benefits of increasing RES in electricity production. The paper first investigates peculiarities of Tunisia electricity system, arguing the necessity to include them in the electricity system model. Then, it explains the choice of OSeMOSYS and brought modifications, including peculiar system characteristics. Finally, the model is applied to two scenarios, a Business As Usual case and a 30% RES target in electricity production case, for time horizon 2010–2030. Results demonstrate the importance of system features detailed modelling. Specifically, they show that targeting RES state-invested integration in the electricity mix may allow higher energy independence to be reached, without increasing significantly system costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a set of prospective LCA studies of electricity production technologies of the Spanish mix from 2014 to 2050. The projection of the power system has been done by using the TIMES-Spain energy model, in which two prospective scenarios have been implemented, a Business as Usual (BaU) and other with a target of 80% reduction in CO 2 emissions by 2050 with respect to 2005 levels. Accordingly, projections of ten LCA impact categories have been obtained. Concerning the evolution of the electricity mix, the coal power plants retirement by 2020 has been observed in both scenarios. The main differences befall on the natural gas contribution, higher in the BaU scenario than in 80% scenario and connected to the Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants usage. In addition, LCA categories selected show overall reductions in the long term reaching from 21% in Ozone Depletion to 85% in Acidification in the BaU scenario, and from 56% in Ecosystems to 87% in Acidification in the 80% scenario. However, Abiotic Depletion potential grows up to 5-times by 2050 due to the metal requirements of the solar photovoltaic technologies, significantly present in the mix. Likewise, the analysis of the endpoint categories (Human Health and Ecosystems) concludes that their evolution is much affected by the presence of the natural gas CHPs and, furthermore, existing fossil options are the main cause of damage by far. Hence a fossil-renewable transition is needed in terms of sustainability. In summary, it is recommended to use energy systems modelling frameworks to develop comprehensive prospective LCA studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public support is an important factor in failure or success of the government decisions with respect to the electricity generation mix, which highlights the necessity of developing an electricity mix that reflects social preferences and acceptance. This study explores heterogeneity in social preferences for power sources and develops an electricity mix from a demand-side perspective. The study utilizes the choice-based conjoint survey and latent class model, and bases its empirical analysis on South Korea's electric power sector. Results demonstrate that preferences for power sources in Korean society consist of two classes: one that is sensitive to the environment and one that is sensitive to risk. An electricity mix for Korea that reflects social preferences is 16.5-19.8% coal-fired, 13.3-24.9% liquefied natural gas (LNG), 9.0-11.2% oil, 22.3-32.9% nuclear, and 18.5-38.9% renewables, depending on the scenario. The study confirms that renewables are the power source with the least potential to cause social conflict, compared to nuclear and coal-fired sources. Moreover, increasing the proportion of renewables (currently only 3.9%) while decreasing the proportion of coal-fired power sources (currently 39.9%) to less than half its current level will result in an electricity mix that is accordance with social preferences in the long run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims at accounting for the variation in electricity production, processes and related impacts depending on season (heating, cooling), day of the week (tertiary building) and hour of the day. In this context, this paper suggests two alternative methods to integrate grid-building interaction in life cycle assessment of buildings and districts. Methods: An attributional dynamic method (AD) and a marginal dynamic method (MD) are compared with an annual average method (AA), representative of standard practice, using electric space heating as an illustrative case. The different methods are based on a dispatch model simulating electricity supply on an hourly basis, averaging historically observed climatic and economic variability. The meteorological inputs of the model are identical to those of the building energy simulation. Therefore, the environmental benefits from smart buildings and onsite renewable energy production are more accurately evaluated. Results and discussion: Using electricity production (or supply) data for a specific past year is a common practice in building LCA. This practice is sensitive to economic and meteorological hazards. The suggested methodology is based on a proposed reference year mitigating these hazards and thus could be seen as more representative of average impacts. Depending on the chosen approach (average or marginal) to evaluate electricity supply related impacts, the carbon footprint of the electric space heating option for the studied low-energy house in France is evaluated to 61.4 to 84.9 g COeq kWh (AA), 78.8 to 110.2 g COeq kWh (AD) and 765.1 to 928.7 g COeq kWh (MD). Compared to wood and gas boiler, 22-107 and 218-284 g COeq kWh respectively, the ranking between the different technical options depends on the chosen approach. Uncertainty analysis does not undermine the interpretation of the results. Conclusions: The proposed electricity system model allows a more precise and representative evaluation of electricity supply related impacts in LCA compared to standard practices. Two alternative methods are suggested corresponding to attributional and consequential LCA. The approach has to be chosen in line with the assessment objectives (e.g. certification, ecodesign). Prospective assessment integrating long-term evolution of the electric system and influence of global warming on buildings behaviour are identified as relevant future research subjects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]