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This Article considers the role of the "less discriminatory alternative" (LDA) in disparate impact litigation under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act and related statutes. The question posed is: has assigning the burden ofproof of identifying LDAs to plaintiffs resulted in the adoption of these alternatives? The answer is no. But well-meaning employers have been reluctant to adopt practices that might increase the presence of minority employees in the workplace because the anti-discrimination laws prohibit reverse discrimination. This Article discusses the legal constraints that impinge on employers who wish to unilaterally search for and adopt an LDA, and explains how artificial intelligence (predictive analytics, specifically) can prove helpful. Artificial intelligence may improve the accuracy of employee selections and, by constraining the algorithm regarding its analysis of seed data but not selections themselves, can lawfully enhance the presence ofminorities and women in the workplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use data from a cross-nationally harmonised field experiment to examine discrimination towards Muslim job applicants in five European countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and the United Kingdom). We focus on job applicants originating from countries that have a substantial Muslim population: of these, some signalled closeness to Islam in their job application while others did not. With this design, we can empirically disentangle anti-Muslim discrimination (a 'disclosed Muslim' effect) from the possible stigma of originating from countries where Islam is prevalent (a 'Muslim by default' effect). Our double-comparative design allows us to compare the extent of anti-Muslim discrimination faced by different origin groups in destination countries characterised by a varying history of church-state relations and distinctive approaches to grant cultural and religious rights to minorities. We find alarming levels of discrimination, especially towards male applicants from more visible groups. Anti-Muslim discrimination and origin-based discrimination independently contribute to the severe disadvantage faced by ethnic and religious minorities, a disadvantage that is especially severe in the Norwegian labour market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors use data from a survey of employers to investigate how Affirmative Action in recruiting and hiring influences hiring practices, personnel policies, and ultimately employment outcomes. They find that Affirmative Action increases the number of recruitment and screening practices used by employers, raises employers' willingness to hire stigmatized applicants, increases the number of minority or female applicants as well as employees, and increases employers' tendencies to provide training and formally evaluate employees. When Affirmative Action is used in recruiting, it generally does not lead to lower credentials or performance of women and minorities hired. When it is also used in hiring, it yields minority employees whose credentials are somewhat weaker, though performance generally is not. Overall, the more intensive search, evaluation, and training that accompany Affirmative Action appear to offset any tendencies of the policy to lead to hiring of less-qualified or less-productive women and minorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relation of age to pay rates for 197 Hispanic, black, and white non-managerial workers of both sexes was examined in two organizations. Disparity between the pay rates of women and minority group members, relative to white men, increased with age when organizational tenure, education, and skills were controlled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A survey was conducted in five large firms during a study of barriers to minority employment. Black and white employee groups, similar in most characteristics, expressed perceptions of their treatment vis-à-vis one another in terms of hiring practices, compensation, promotion, and job satisfaction and treatment. Management implications of differing perceptions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the impact made by the entrance of black employees into traditionally white jobs. The struggle of equal job opportunities for blacks in the U.S. has receded from public attention. There is now more concern about equal employment opportunities for women and promotions for blacks. The study was undertaken at a large manufacturing company to examine the attitudes of people affected by blacks moving into new jobs and gauge its organizational impact. The study was also part of a larger project researching the experiences of new employees. There were implications in the company at that time that black employees did not perform as well as white employees, and that affirmative action programs encouraged the hiring of employees who would otherwise be overlooked.

The article explores the viewpoints of executives in a midwestern industrial area regarding the participatory management practices. It was found that younger executives are more liberal. The results found that thirty six percent of those questioned favor voting as a means of decision making. Of those, all feel that once voting is allowed, the decision should be accepted by management. Ninety one percent of executives felt that the hiring of minorities is not an issue on which voting should be used as a decision making tool. They feel that hiring members of minority groups can take place only through leadership on the part of the top managers of organizations.

The article examines whether corporations with affirmative action programs discriminates against minorities during employee selection. It also examines the truth behind the claim that affirmative action pressures have resulted in reverse discrimination. Recruitment is a critical stage in the employment process since it is the first contact between an applicant and the company. The requirement of laws on equal employment opportunity is that companies must not discriminate during the recruitment process.

This article focuses on a study which examines the effect of the United States Office of Federal Contract Compliance on upgrading the status of minority workers in the U.S. It presents government requirements for a company's affirmative action and employment policies. A comparison between involuntary quotas and voluntary contracts, and its reflection of corporate attitudes in the U.S., is detailed. Finally, the article puts forth various selection criteria used in the awarding of employment contracts.

Previous research has documented that unemployed job applicants have problems re-entering the labour market, commonly referred to as scarring effects of unemployment. Studies have also documented ethnic discrimination in the labour market. Yet, we do not know how these categories jointly shape employers hiring decisions. Thus, we do not know if unemployed minorities face an additive or a multiplicative disadvantage in hiring processes. Building on experimental data from two waves of a randomized field experiment, we test whether we find an ethnic scarring effect, which would imply that contemporary long-term unemployment is particularly harmful to native-born ethnic minorities. As expected, our experiment documents scarring effects of contemporary long-term unemployment. We also found, as expected, systematically lower call-backs for applicants with Pakistani/Muslim names. Also, our results show that unemployed minorities face an additive disadvantage in the labour market. Thus, we find no evidence of an ethnic scarring effect of unemployment, which would imply different consequences of unemployment for minority and majority applicants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates whether minorities in academe exercise bargaining power in a way that influences hiring of other minority faculty. We develop a stylized model that shows how minorities influence the hiring of other minorities, taking into account the hiring of majority faculty. We postulate that such behavior is similar to the behavior of insider workers in the context of the insider-outsider literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the impact of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) assessment on the employers' use of criminal background checks. It mentions the disparate impact theory of discrimination and impractical burden on employers due to individualized assessment. It adds the less hiring of minorities with the reliance of employers on criminal background check.

The process of applicant self-selection has received significant attention in the academic literature. However, scant attention has been devoted to parsing out controllable from uncontrollable reasons for applicant withdrawal. At a most basic level, recognition and management of the problems impeding test availability to an applicant is a starting point. This research aimed to gain a better understanding of why applicants withdraw from the selection process, after application, by investigating differential reasons for withdrawal based on minority status and test accessibility for individual applicants. This was accomplished by surveying applicants of an entry-level position within a variety of locations. The results indicate that the reasons for withdrawal are best described as obstructions (e.g., distance to testing facility) and are based less upon differences between minority subgroup and cognitive evaluations/attributions concerning the suitability of the focal position. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines which individual-level factors are related to people's likelihood of discriminating against ethnic minority job applicants. It moves beyond describing to what extent discrimination occurs by examining the role of individuals' interethnic contacts, education and religion in shaping their behavior towards ethnic minority job applicants. We derive expectations from theories from the interethnic attitudes literature. Data are collected via (1) a laboratory experiment in which student participants (n = 272) reviewed résumés of fictitious applicants who varied regarding ethnicity, gender, education and work experience and (2) a survey amongst the same participants. During the experiment, participants assess applicants' suitability for a job and select applicants for an interview. Additionally, participants complete a questionnaire including questions on several personal and background features. Results show that individuals who have more positive interethnic contacts, higher educational levels and higher educated parents are less likely to discriminate against ethnic minority applicants. Individuals whose parents are church members are more likely to discriminate, as are males. We find interesting differences regarding the role of decision makers' features between different stages of the recruitment process. First assessments of applicants' suitability for a job are predominantly affected by applicants' features. Differences between decision makers here are relatively small. Eventual choices about which applicants to invite for a job interview, however, are affected by both applicants' and decision makers' features; here differences between decision makers are more pronounced. Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Under a Foucauldian reading of the power-knowledge nexus, this paper combines the diffusion theory and the discourse analysis to study knowledge asymmetries present in the diffusion process of ethnoracial affirmative actions in selected Andean countries. The study aims to show the transnational connections between legal and / or academic discourses and the ethno-racial representations, based on the analysis of recent legislation and constitutional reforms, a literature review of national academic production and interviews with leaders of indigenous and Afro-descendant organizations as well as with servants of public companies related to ethno-racial and anti-discrimination policies. At all these levels (law, social sciences, social movements, public policies) the obtained evidence reveals how expert knowledge places the U.S.A. as a paradigm or model, obscuring the experience of other countries and ruling a liberal multiculturalist agenda. This transfer (vertical, unilateral) of knowledge has had a notable impact in Colombia and Chile, but it has been resisted by alternative epistemic projects, especially in Ecuador and Bolivia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Research on minority representation and career trajectories in higher education represents a substantial body of evidence in the field; however, the empirical evidence fails to address a crucial area: intercollegiate athletics. This study aims to address the gap in the empirical work and study the career trajectories and representation of African-Americans and Latinos in NCAA FBS football coaching positions. Methods A pipeline argument is often utilized to explain the underrepresentation of minorities in certain careers and industries. This pipeline argument is erroneous in this instance because of the number of minority players in college football that make up the 'future coach career pool.' We develop a position hierarchy in which previous assistant coaching positions are seen as stepping stones to an ultimate head coaching position. Results We find that white and minorities coaches have different career trajectories and position hierarchies that ultimately lead to the underrepresentation of minorities at the head coaching ranks. Conclusions Evidence suggests sharp differences in the likelihood of certain player positions and, in turn (and likely related), certain coaching positions to achieving head coach. The career utility hierarchy developed here seems to have some validity and, most important for present purposes, shows some considerable difference in the career stepping stones of, respectively, whites and minorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - Research has shown that employers often disfavor racial minorities -- particularly African Americans -- even when whites and minorities present comparable resumes when applying for jobs. Extant studies have been hard pressed to distinguish between taste-based discrimination where employers' racial animus is the key motivation for their poor treatment of minorities and variants of statistical discrimination where there is no assumption at all of racial animus on the part of the employer. This chapter proposes a test of these theories by observing whether employers use employee referrals as a "cheap" source of information to help assess applicant quality. Methodology/approach - Unique quantitative data encompassing the entire pool of 987 candidates interviewed by one company in the western United States during a 13-month period are used to test our arguments. Findings - We find that employers in this setting are making use of the cheap information available to them: Consistent with statistical discrimination theory, minority referrals are more likely to receive a job offer than non-referred minority applicants, and are not disfavored relative to referred whites. Originality/value of the chapter - Both statistical and taste-based theories of discrimination propose similar observable outcomes (lower rates of disfavored minority hiring). While different mental processes are being invoked by taste-based and statistical discrimination theories, the theories are extremely difficult to distinguish in terms of observable behaviors. Especially for the purpose of designing legal remedies and labor market policies to ameliorate the disparate treatment of minority groups, differentiating between these theories is a high priority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on disparate impact in U.S. justice administration. Information is provided on the U.S. Supreme Court case Griggs v. Duke Power Co. which dealt with employer liability for disparate impact on minority workers. It is noted that that judgment in Griggs helped implement fair hiring practices in the U.S.

This research examined how the racial prototypicality of minority job applicants' faces influenced hiring decisions under different affirmative action (AA) policies: no AA, soft AA (recruitment of minorities with merit-based hiring), and hard AA (race as a tie-break factor in hiring). Participants ( N=252) evaluated resume/photograph pairs, each containing a Caucasian and a Black applicant, with minority applicants representing three levels of racial prototypicality. The number of jobs awarded to minorities increased as Black racial prototypicality increased. Each level of AA policy strength increased the number of minority hires, but these increases came with a price: AA directives decreased the percentage of minority hires attributed to higher qualifications and increased perceptions that hires were due to AA more than was actually the case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Affirmative action is an amalgam of federal, state, and local ordinances and other legislative mandates to remedy inequities in employment for traditionally marginalized groups. The need for such programs continues to be debated given varying evidence that affirmative action has not been as even handed as proponents have touted. This article explores the extent to which affirmative action, after more than 40 years, has leveled the playing field in the workplace for women and minorities. In essence, who have been the true beneficiaries of affirmative action? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decades of racial progress have led some researchers and policymakers to doubt that discrimination remains an important cause of economic inequality. To study contemporary discrimination, we conducted a field experiment in the low-wage labor market of New York City, recruiting white, black, and Latino job applicants who were matched on demographic characteristics and interpersonal skills. These applicants were given equivalent résumés and sent to apply in tandem for hundreds of entry-level jobs. Our results show that black applicants were half as likely as equally qualified whites to receive a callback or job offer. In fact, black and Latino applicants with clean backgrounds fared no better than white applicants just released from prison. Additional qualitative evidence from our applicants' experiences further illustrates the multiple points at which employment trajectories can be deflected by various forms of racial bias. These results point to the subtle yet systematic forms of discrimination that continue to shape employment opportunities for low-wage workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers an analysis of the administrative positions in universities and colleges with a focus on racial and ethnic diversity. It says that Black people assume administrative positions sooner than White people. It adds that Black women are more likely to assume both academic leader and students affairs positions. It states that women in all racial and ethnic minority groups hold a majority of student affairs positions. It says that location also matters in administrative positions in colleges and universities, with Black people mostly employed in comprehensive and liberal arts institutions.

In our rejoinder to the comments of Kehoe (this issue) and Potosky, Bobko and Roth (this issue) we emphasize that our proposal on Pareto-optimal predictor composite formation is a complementary and not a competitive alternative for reducing the tension between selection quality and adverse impact. Our work addresses the decisions to be made once one has decided to use a predictor composite. We also further clarify the basic features of Pareto-optimal tradeoffs and Pareto-optimal composites within the context of personnel selection. In particular, we indicate that Pareto-optimal tradeoffs between validity and adverse impact emerge because these goals are different and not because of any dualism between them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several of the most valid predictors used to make employment decisions create a diversity–validity dilemma ( Pyburn, Ployhart, & Kravitz, this issue, 2008 ). This diversity–validity dilemma can be resolved by (a) reducing adverse impact through a variety of technical steps ( Ployhart & Holtz, this issue, 2008 ) or (b) using affirmative action to increase representation of the disadvantaged groups. This paper focuses on the second approach. The paper begins with a very brief review of the legal bases of affirmative action and a summary of the research on affirmative action attitudes. This is followed with reviews of research on the ongoing existence of workplace discrimination, the economic impact of affirmative action on target groups and organizations, and stigmatization of target group members by others and by target group members themselves. Most problems with affirmative action apply only or primarily to preference-based forms, so nonpreferential approaches to affirmative action are recommended to increase the attraction, selection, inclusion, and retention of underrepresented group members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses innovative survey questions from the 1998 Detroit Area Study to examine how whites communicate their views about racial matters across three affirmative action hiring scenarios. Results suggest that most whites prefer explanations for not hiring blacks based on the abstract and decontextualized application of the principles of liberalism. Justifications that were initially offered emphasizing qualification thresholds, broad criteria, and contextual concerns, usually in support of hiring the black applicant, were largely withdrawn when the scenario was changed from one with equal scores to one with scores slightly favouring the white applicant. Concrete and contextualized concerns about workforce homogeneity and the slightness of score differences were raised in a conciliatory manner when scores were equal, but then were seldom maintained when scores favoured the white candidate. Whites also more readily voiced opposition when the reason for hire was changed from 'diversity' to 'make up for past discrimination', offering 'reasonable' responses about 'the past is the past' that don't deny concrete historical events, but dismiss their connection to today's racial order. Taken together, the evidence suggests that the language of universalism and minimization of racism allow most whites to communicate their views about affirmative action using rhetorical strategies that seem reasonable and moral. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study replicates and extends previous work by Oppenheimer and Wiesner [1990, Sex discrimination: Who is hired and do employment equity statements make a difference? Proceedings of the 11th Annual Conference of the Administrative Sciences Association of Canada, Personnel and Human Resources Division], and examined the effects of minority qualifications on hiring decisions, the effects of employment equity directives when minority candidates are less qualified and the effects of different types and strengths of employment equity directives on hiring decisions. The results indicate that when employment equity is in place, people are increasingly more likely to hire underrepresented group members, to the extent that they are more qualified. Men appear to be treated in a positively biased manner, and are more likely to be hired when they are less qualified. Women are less likely to be hired when they are under-qualified, and in the absence of employment equity directives or when there is a suggestion that women are underrepresented. Moreover, when␣employment equity directives are strengthened, there appears to be a subtle backlash for women but not for men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influences of socio-race, racial identity development, gender, educational level, and age on promotion and compensation decisions by midlevel supervisors in industry were examined in this analogue study of 74 midlevel business and industry supervisors. The participants varied in socio-racial classifications, gender, educational levels, and age, Results of this study indicated statistically significant differences in promotion rates of female analogue employees, rates of promotion between White male and Black male supervisors, and the rate of promotion when comparing older versus younger supervisors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the areas that provide the opportunity to explore faculty diversity challenges. These challenges include the faculty hiring, tenure progression, and rewards and recognition for contributions to diversity. It was viewed that faculty diversity specifically recognized the importance of grounding the framework for understanding faculty careers psychological and sociological theory.

The article discusses on the impact of affirmative action programs and the perceptions of black aspiring business executives in South Africa. The author outlines the perceptions of African aspiring business executives, unique features of South Africans, advantages and disadvantages of affirmative action in the country. He points out skepticism about the intentions of white controlled business to genuinely deracialize persists, despite the much publicized emergence of black-controlled conglomerates.

In spite of progress made since the 1950s and 1960s, black, Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi workers remain disadvantaged relative to whites in terms of their labour market opportunities. In general, they experience higher rates of unemployment and tend to be under-represented in higher paid, non-manual occupations. They can therefore be said to pay an ethnic penalty in the competition for jobs although the penalties paid vary considerably between the minority groups. In this paper we examine the different employment experiences of black, Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi men and women in terms of their unemployment propensities and occupational attainment.We use maximum likelihood methods to show that the ethnic penalties experienced by minority workers are not fully explained by differences in human capital endowments and personal characteristics. We conclude that at least some of the disadvantage experienced by ethnic minorities in the British labour market can be attributed to discriminatory selection practices by employers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use microlevel data on employers and employees from a sample of establishments in four major metropolitan areas in the United States to investigate whether Affirmative Action leads to the hiring of minority or female employees who are less qualified. Our measures of qualifications include the educational attainment of the workers hired and a variety of outcome measures related to worker performance on the job. We find evidence of lower educational qualifications among women and minorities hired under Affirmative Action. However, we do not find evidence of weaker job performance among most groups of minority and female Affirmative Action hires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the differences in employment patterns of African American and Mexican Americans in municipal governments in Texas and the conditions underlying racial employment patterns. The assumption is that minority employment is either a function of relative attainments in terms of such items as education or training or a function of factors peculiar to the locale that inhibit employment based on individual attainments. Employment within Texas municipal governments reflects substantial variations in hiring patterns of African American and Spanish-surnamed minorities. Spanish-surnamed employment is related to characteristics of that minority population. Urbanization has not affected the hiring of both groups. The employment potential of African Americans seems to be increased in growing central cities. Mexican Americans are more likely to be employed in more traditional environments having a stable population and less employment in manufacturing concerns. The African American minority is also disadvantaged in terms of professional employment than the Spanish-surnamed minority. Spanish-surnamed employment is related to population characteristics such as the size and education of the Spanish-surnamed workforce or the presence of professionals within that workforce. Hence, it is characteristics of the group to be employed which are relevant, rather than characteristics of the employing agency or the environment in which it operates. These factors are not as relevant for the African American minority, which finds its employment opportunities to be further constrained by city characteristics such as the size of the city and suburbanization.

Women and ethnic minority employment is concentrated in lower level positions; individual career advancement efforts apparently confront a glass ceiling that hinders promotion into middle and upper management careers. This study examines the glass ceiling phenomenon among federal employees through secondary analysis using data from the 1991/1992 Career Development or Glass Ceiling Survey (U.S. MSPB, 1992). Ethnic-gender categories (white-male, white-female, minority-male, and minority-female) are analyzed with respect to variables focusing on objective human capital factors that may affect career advancement. The discriminant analysis demonstrates that there are indeed gender and secondary ethnic distinctions among upper-level federal employees. Regression analyses also establish that ethnic and gender considerations affect career advancement differently. Questions of work and family responsibilities are the main source of these differences. Regression analyses indicate that women and minorities are much more dependent upon formal, objective factors such as education, prior experience, and performance ratings for their career success than are white male colleagues. Because the career advice and mentoring women and minorities receive (while objectively sound) does not include the important social linkage to decision-making networks (presently dominated by white male employees), decision-makers are more likely to lack individual and organizational fit assessments that are crucial determinants in hiring and promotion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two models are presented as aids in setting realistic numerical goals for the employment of women and minority persons, and in evaluating progress towards meeting such goals. By modelling personnel flows in terms of hiring and persistence rates for various job categories, we develop a consistent structure for projecting future employment patterns as a function of hiring goals. These hiring goals themselves are made to depend on the growth-rate of staff size, the relative availability of women and minority candidates in the potential pool of job applicants, and the organization's policies towards equity in hiring. The second model considers a small organizational unit with fixed staff size. By formulating the process of attrition and replacement with new hires as a Markov chain, we are able to make probability statements about the number of positions that will be occupied by women and/or minority persons at some future time. The relationship of the these probabilities to the distribution among job applicants is made explicit. Applications of these models to faculty and staff planning at Stanford University are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data from 513 subjects in China, Korea, Mexico and the USA are analysed to explore the effects of ethnicity, nationality and gender on responses to a variety of business ethical dilemmas. Responses are analysed with respect to the ethical theories of Utilitarianism (Act and Rule), Justice, and Individual Rights. Implications for human resource management are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All business firms with the U.S. government contracts worth $50,000 or more, and with 50 or more employees, are required to conduct a self-audit to determine whether their employment of minorities and women across the broad spectrum of occupational groups comports with the availability of persons in such groups who are qualified for employment by the firm. If a significant disparity is found between the employment of qualified minorities and women in the contractor's work force and their presence in the labor market, the contractor is required to develop an affirmative-action plan to eliminate the disparity. The affirmative-action plan specifies a set of procedures the employer will follow in recruiting, evaluating, hiring, training, and promoting employees in order to assure that qualified minorities and women are considered for employment at every level of the workplace. Contractors are expected to make a good faith effort to follow their plan in managing their human-resources system. Regulations that guide the enforcement process specifically prohibit hiring quotas, racial and gender preferences, and other numerically based requirements in the implementation of affirmative-action plans.

In recent years there have been two major criticisms of affirmative action. The first is that affirmative action does not work. Therefore, one should dispose of it. The second is that affirmative action does work. Therefore, one should dispose of it. The concern here will be with the first of these criticisms. If affirmative action has not changed the employment patterns of nonwhites and females, then much of the discussion since 1965 of its philosophical merits amounts to shadow boxing. Has affirmative action been successful in increasing employment opportunities for females and minorities? The literature on affirmative action can be divided into studies of the regulatory process that find it mortally flawed and studies of impact that find it successful. In light of the unanimity of the process studies in finding the affirmative action regulatory mechanism seriously deficient, it is surprising that the few econometric studies of the impact of affirmative action in its first years have generally found significant evidence that it has been effective for black males. These few studies of the initial years of affirmative action are not directly comparable because of different specifications, samples, and periods.

The definition of fairness in the guidelines is the same as Cleary's regression model of test bias, which results in a lower proportion of new hires that is minority than the proportion of qualified applicants that is minority. This article explains the disparity, reviews alternative definitions that reduce the disadvantage, and discusses legal arguments. Apparently the guidelines definition is widely disregarded in practice—a color-blind model seems to be the definition generally used by employers. That definition puts minorities at less of a disadvantage than the federal guidelines definition does. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]