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Abstract: The goal of this paper is to estimate the perspectives of the Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania on meeting the new European Union climate commitments, i.e., to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% to the year 2020 in comparison with 1990. This ambitious target could be reached based on other EU climate and energy package commitments: increase of the share of renewables and improvement of energy efficiency as tools for fulfilling the GHG emissions reduction target. The paper gives an overview on the current situation and future plans of the Baltic States in the field of energy efficiency, consumption of renewables and reduction of GHG emissions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper will summarise the European Strategy for Energy and Climate Change. In current international negotiations Europe has proposed a 20% reduction in GHG (greenhouse gases) in the developed countries by 2020 or 30% should there be an international agreement in the domain. However it is important to define measures to achieve the targets. One of the principal tools is to improve energy efficiency under the energy efficiency action plan, which will help to achieve a 20% energy saving by 2020. On the other hand, the amount of energy from renewable sources consumed in Europe will have to rise from its current level of 8.5%–20% by 2020. These are ambitious but achievable targets. Nonetheless, these can only be achieved through strong investment in areas of the knowledge triangle which strengthens research and innovation in the energy sector in Europe. The paper covers European Energy and Climate Change Policy, the European Strategic Energy Technology plan, the consequences of the Lisbon Treaty, European and national Road maps to a low carbon economy, the Energy Efficiency Plan for 2011 and finishes with a brief consideration of the EU’s energy infrastructure priorities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The rapid growth of Chinese economy has tremendously stimulated the expansion of energy consumption. The structure of energy consumption in China is featured with the coal domination. Air pollution is becoming increasingly severe. As a result, we are confronted with the extremely arduous task to balance energy consumption and environmental protection. In order to coordinate the relationship between energy consumption and environmental protection in a strategic way, this paper analyzes comprehensively the instruments, effects and perspectives of energy-related environmental management. Meanwhile, this paper illustrates the barriers and challenges facing the energy and energy-related environmental management in China, and suggests a priority strategy of management instrument, mainly composed of energy-saving, optimization of energy structure, promulgation of environmental standards, advance in environmental technologies, internalization of environmental costs, establishment of a public benefit fund and adoption of a Renewable Portfolio System. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports the outcome of the project on “Capacity building in formulating harmonized policy instruments for the promotion of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in the ASEAN member countries”. With the growing concerns about green house gas (GHG) emission and consequent climate change, renewable energy sources have become more attractive option for electricity generation around the world. Studies have been made on the status of renewable energy potential and utilization, major barriers in promoting renewable energy in ASEAN countries, major energy policies to overcome barriers, and existing renewable energy and energy efficiency policies in ASEAN countries. Paper concludes that ASEAN has not utilized its renewable energy resources anywhere near to the potential. Analysis found that the key factor that has to be amended is “policies and regulations in renewable energy and energy efficiency” at both country level and regional level. But, ASEAN is not yet ready for the full harmonization of the policies. However, it recommends that, with the project outputs it is possible to focus on the specific policy instruments common to most of the member countries, such that it could use to augment ASEAN Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) initiatives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper defines the diverging interests of multiple actors in typically achieving and advancing energy efficiency. Gaps in the literature include the short elaboration of energy efficiency factors and conditions and the lack of information about developed and developing countries and thorough consideration of their specific features, impeding the development and implementation of detailed energy efficiency management strategies. It is against this backdrop that this paper seeks to identify the essence of energy efficiency and developing specific recommendations for achieving the most beneficial effect and well-balanced energy efficiency on the global scale, within the achievements of international goals in sustainable development. The paper exposes the critical factors of energy efficiency, accurately models the best energy efficiency characteristics, and settles the best energy consumption structure. The methodological purpose is to find different energy efficiency scenarios and disentangle fundamental differences in energy efficiency in developed and developing countries. The paper indicates that the reasonable likelihood of noteworthy achievement results in energy efficiency with insignificant mid-term changes. We give recommendations about well-balanced energy efficiency on the global scale and global progress in sustainable development. • This paper disentangles key differences in energy efficiency in developed and developing countries. • We identify the essence of energy efficiency and develop recommendations for achieving balanced energy efficiency globally. • The paper models the best energy efficiency characteristics and settles the best energy consumption structure. • We give recommendations about well-balanced energy efficiency in sustainable development. • The study shows energy consumption optimization in terms of GDP structure, energy consumption, and sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Satisfying energy requirements in its most suitable form is the great challenge of the world in the 21st century. Moroccan authorities are fully aware about this challenge, especially with the population and economic growth that causes a sharp increase of energy demand. This paper presents the renewable energy potentials and the national strategy currently underway to pursue low-carbon opportunities in Morocco. The enormous potential identified in the Moroccan renewable energy sector with favorable CO 2 mitigation draw optimistic expectations to build sustained low-carbon economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand side management (DSM) can be defined as modifications in the demand side energy consumption pattern to foster better efficiency and operations in electrical energy systems. DSM activities, which are classified into “energy efficiency (EE)” and “demand response (DR)” are becoming more popular due to technological advances in smart grids and electricity market deregulation. However, it can be argued that ensuring DSM sustainability requires creating suitable business models. Business models are influenced by different factors such as electricity market regulation, mechanisms, power system characteristics and infrastructure. The proliferation of smart grid infrastructure, distributed generation, intermittent renewable energy resources and energy storage devices has affected DSM business models considerably. Therefore, in this paper, possible business models for EE and DR providers in different electricity market segments are analyzed and reviewed. The analysis covers three types of characteristics: DSM transaction characteristics, renewable energy correlation and DSM load control characteristics. In DSM transaction characteristics, the value proposition of DSM such as added value offered to the DSM purchaser and transaction triggers are discussed. In renewable energy correlation, the effect of increased renewable energy penetration on the business model is evaluated. In DSM load control characteristics, load control and aggregation aspects such as response speed, duration, advance notice, location sensitivity and actual usage frequency are analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The continuous growth in size, complexity and energy density of data centres due to the increasing demand for storage, networking and computation has become a worldwide energetic problem. The emergent awareness of the negative impact that the uncontrolled energy consumption has on natural environment, the predicted limitation of fossil fuels production in the upcoming decades and the growing associated costs have strongly influenced the energy systems engineering work in the last decades. Therefore, the implementation of well known and advanced energy efficiency measures to reduce data centres energy demand play an important role not only to a supportable growth but also to reduce its operational costs. The carbon footprint is greatly influenced by the energy sources used. Therefore, there have been recent efforts to exploit and reuse or combine green energy sources in data centres to lower brown energy consumption and CO 2 emissions. This paper presents a comprehensible overview of the current data centre infrastructure and summarizes a number of currently available energy efficiency strategies and renewable energy integration into data centres and its characterization using numerical models. Moreover it would be necessary to develop dynamic models and metrics for properly understand and quantify the energy consumption and the benefits of applying the incoming energy efficiency strategies and renewable energy sources in the data centres. Thus, the researches or investors will be able to compare with reliability the different data centre designs and choose the best option depending on the renewable energy sources and capital available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a thermodynamic study carried out on the use of low-temperature heat sources for power generation through a subcritical Rankine cycle with organic working fluids. An analysis of the state of the art of this technology shows the selection of the working fluid as an open research line, since until now there is no fluid that can meet all environmental and technical aspects to be considered in these cycles. Hence, we have developed a series of simulations that allow us to study the behavior of the Rankine cycle with different configurations and fluids (wet, dry and isentropic) which has led us to observe the influence on the overall cycle efficiency when we change the type of fluids used (refrigerants, hydrocarbons and water) as well as the conditions of temperature, pressure, flow, etc. With the work realized, the viability of this type of processes is demonstrated for the recovery of heat in industry and/or the use of renewable sources of low and medium temperature for the production of electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is the foundation that supports and spurs the socio-economic development of a country. It is a fact that development is not possible without energy and sustainable development is not possible without sustainable energy. As a country that is aiming to become a high-income nation by 2020, Malaysia is in a quandary to come up with a plan for energy security to ensure sustainable economic development, while at a same time striking a balance in the electricity demand-and-supply chain. This paper studies and estimates how these two areas that are often overlooked; energy efficiency and renewable energy can seriously contribute to the local energy sector and find the equilibrium in the electricity demand and supply, and eventually gauge whether a nuclear power plant or more fossil-fuelled power plant is necessary in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent papers argue that the energy return on energy invested (EROI) for renewable electricity technologies and systems may be so low that the transition from fossil fuelled to renewable electricity may displace investment in other important economic sectors. For the case of large-scale electricity supply, we draw upon insights from Net Energy Analysis and renewable energy engineering to examine critically some assumptions, data and arguments in these papers, focussing on regions in which wind and solar can provide the majority of electricity. We show that the above claim is based on outdated data on EROIs, on failing to consider the energy efficiency advantages of transitioning away from fuel combustion and on overestimates of storage requirements. EROIs of wind and solar photovoltaics, which can provide the vast majority of electricity and indeed of all energy in the future, are generally high (≥ 10) and increasing. The impact of storage on EROI depends on the quantities and types of storage adopted and their operational strategies. In the regions considered in this paper, the quantity of storage required to maintain generation reliability is relatively small. • EROIs of wind and solar technologies are generally high and increasing. • Impact of storage on system EROI depends on quantity, types and use of storage. • Power systems with high solar and wind penetrations need small storage capacities. • Energy conversion efficiency greatly increases EROI of macro-economic system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption is a critical issue for the communications network operators, impacting deeply the cost of the services, as well as the ecological footprint. Network slicing architecture for 5G mobile communications enables multiple independent virtual networks to be created on top of a common shared physical infrastructure. Each network slice needs different types of resources, including energy, to fulfill the demands requested by each application, operator, or vertical market. The existing literature on network slicing is mainly targeted at the partition of network resources; however, the corresponding management of energy consumption is an unconsidered critical concern. This paper analyzes the requirements for an energy-aware 5G network slicing provisioning according to the 3GPP specifications, proposes an architecture, and studies the strategies to provide efficient energy consumption in terms of renewable and non-renewable sources. NFV and SDN technologies are the essential enablers and leverage the Internet of Things (IoT) connectivity provided by 5G networks. This paper also presents the technical 5G technology documentation related to the proposal, the requirements for adaptive energy management, and the Integer Linear Programming (ILP) formulation of the energy management model. To validate the improvements, an exact optimal algorithmic solution is presented and some heuristic strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy efficiency, commonly interpreted as the ratio of output of performance, service, goods or energy, to input of energy , is of critical importance for reducing dependence on oil, controlling greenhouse gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion and mitigating environmental damages in order to achieve a sustainable global energy system. In this paper, for the first time to the best of our understanding, we measure the (hidden) preferences for energy efficiency and capture their impacts on energy conservation in a panel of ASEAN countries, China and India (in short, the ACI nations) from 1985 to 2020. We apply the state-space models to estimate country-specific preferences for energy efficiency as a latent variable and then explore their impacts on the demand for renewable energy using an efficient generalised method of moments (GMM) estimator for the panel of chosen countries. We find strong evidence that intensities of preferences for energy efficiency increase the demand for renewable energy in ACI nations. In an extension of our study, we replicate our analysis for leading European Union (EU) nations using clean energy to arrive at interesting comparative insights. We gain further insights into the understanding of how structural breaks can influence the impacts of preferences for energy efficiency on the demand for renewables for ACI nations. • Energy efficiency is an important means for controlling ecological footprints of the economy. • Preferences for energy efficiency, is a driver of energy efficiency there is little effort in measuring such preferences and their impacts upon energy efficiency and conservation. • Using state space modelling, we extract unobserved preferences and measure theire impacts on energy conservation for EU and ACI nations. • We find that preferences for energy efficiency increase the demand for renewable energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The livestock sector is a key source of greenhouse gas emissions and other impacts. Poultry (meat and eggs) is the fastest growing livestock sector globally. Poultry housing, including both infrastructure and operating energy, may account for as much as 50% of the total non-renewable energy (non-RE) use and up to 20%–35% of some of the life cycle impacts of poultry production. The application of net zero energy (NZE) building technologies (i.e. that enable net zero non-RE consumption on site) for poultry housing represents a promising but under-considered mitigation strategy, which could help lessen reliance on fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Insights from commercial and residential net zero energy building (NZEB) research can, to a limited extent, inform design considerations for NZE poultry housing, but a variety of unique design considerations and challenges inherent to confined, intensive animal husbandry must be considered. Towards this end, this review seeks to: 1) identify insights from research of residential and commercial NZEBs that might be applied in designing NZE poultry housing; 2) quantify the magnitude and distribution of energy use in poultry housing in order to determine key energy consuming components; and 3) identify priority design considerations for NZEBs for intensive confined poultry production, taking into account the physiological requirements of poultry as well as specific requirements for intensive, confined production. To accomplish these goals, 249 relevant papers were identified and reviewed. It was found that, similar to commercial/residential applications, design strategies should focus on a combination of aspects respectively aimed at (1) reducing direct energy (DE) use via structural design, (2) improving the energy efficiency of active technology systems and (3) installing context-appropriate renewable energy (RE) generation systems. Some common passive design strategies like maximizing glazed area may be less applicable for poultry housing where photoperiod control is required. Heating (during heating seasons) and ventilation (during cooling seasons) are the two main contributors to DE use in poultry housing but vary considerably based on geography and climate. HVAC systems should hence be a priority focus, considering the high ventilation rates required in confined poultry housing in order to maintain air quality. However, any modifications to current technologies should be based on careful consideration of the physiological requirements of poultry (for example, ambient temperature, air quality, feed and water provision, etc.), along with local climatic factors, technical feasibility and availability of alternative technologies, as well as both environmental and economic payback times. [Display omitted] • Poultry is the fastest growing sub-sector of the GHG-intensive livestock sector. • Infrastructure and operating energy contributes 50% of non-renewable energy use. • Net zero energy buildings (NZEBs) are a potential mitigation strategy. • Research of commercial/residential NZEBS can inform design considerations. • Physiological requirements of poultry and confined production must be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contents of this paper address the concept of net zero energy in industrial and commercial buildings, focusing on the definition which accounts for energy losses by converting each energy carrier used in the building to source energy. Therefore, this paper presents a sample of several source energy conversion factors commonly used in the United States, Canada and in most European countries. Energy efficiency in industrial and commercial buildings is discussed throughout the work, including a brief review of energy-efficiency measures which can be implemented in order to increase the efficiency and improve the performance of these energy-intensive buildings. Net metering is introduced due to its importance towards achieving net zero energy, along with its potential benefits and challenges, as well as a brief overview of policies currently being implemented around the world. In addition, various aspects regarding the classification of the weighting system and calculation of zero energy balance are also addressed. Finally, a case study is presented to evaluate whether five distinct enterprises located in Portugal can achieve annual net zero energy by deploying on-site renewable sources in the area available within their site boundary. This case study is based on a developed algorithm which allows the evaluation of these enterprises according to different symmetric and asymmetric weighting systems. The concepts of demand response and net metering are also briefly discussed and presented as a viable and cost-effective solution to aid any building achieving annual net zero energy. • Energy efficiency is mandatory to achieve net zero energy in industrial buildings. • Several process specific measures can be adopted in each industrial sector. • Source energy conversion factors are presented to assist the balance calculation. • The choice of weighting factors heavily influences the building energy balance. • Asymmetric weights favouring generation are suitable for net zero-energy buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential for energy efficiency and for the deployment of renewable energy at universities is substantial, and they represent promising ways to meet an institution's energy needs on the one hand, without a large climate burden on the other. However, in order to achieve successful investment and results, it is imperative to understand the level of current commitment to energy actions. Therefore, this paper investigates the level of engagement in energy efficiency measures of a sample of 50 higher education institutions from round the world, and identifies which types of renewable energy are being used to date. Results show that in more than half of the universities only a small portion of energy consumption comes from renewable sources (1%–20%) and solar/photovoltaics is the most used source (70%). Investment in energy efficiency is more common in the sample, with 54% of the universities reporting higher levels of engagement, mainly in buildings (78%) and equipment/machineries (56%). Departing from the assumption that sustainable energy use is a pre-condition for campuses to pursue sustainability, the paper identifies current deficiencies and discusses improvements in this key area, with experiences which may be replicable elsewhere. • Renewable energy accounts as minor part of the energy usage in most universities. • Solar/photovoltaic energy applications are the most common modalities of renewable energy used at HEIs. • Buildings and equipment have been identified as the primary areas where energy efficiency improvements are needed. •. A positive correlation between engagement in energy efficiency and investments in renewable energy was observed. • There is much room for improvements in what universities can do to enhance their energy efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable development in the building sector requires the integration of energy efficiency and renewable energy utilization in buildings. In recent years, the concept of net zero energy buildings (NZEBs) has become a potential plausible solution to improve efficiency and reduce energy consumption in buildings. To achieve an NZEB goal, building systems and design strategies must be integrated and optimized based on local climatic conditions. This paper provides a comprehensive review of NZEBs and their current development in hot and humid regions. Through investigating 34 NZEB cases around the world, this study summarized NZEB key design strategies, technology choices and energy performance. The study found that passive design and technologies such as daylighting and natural ventilation are often adopted for NZEBs in hot and humid climates, together with other energy efficient and renewable energy technologies. Most NZEB cases demonstrated site annual energy consumption intensity less than 100 kW-hours (kWh) per square meter of floor space, and some buildings even achieved "net-positive energy" (that is, they generate more energy locally than they consume). However, the analysis also shows that not all NZEBs are energy efficient buildings, and buildings with ample renewable energy adoption can still achieve NZEB status even with high energy use intensity. This paper provides in-depth case-study-driven analysis to evaluate NZEB energy performance and summarize best practices for high performance NZEBs. This review provides critical technical information as well as policy recommendations for net zero energy building development in hot and humid climates. • A case-study-driven review of net zero energy buildings in hot and humid climates with technology choices and design features. • Summary of climate-responsive design and technologies for NZEBs in hot and humid climates. • In-depth energy performance analysis and recommendations for developing high performance NZEBs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• End-use of electricity consumption in residential buildings in Gulf Cooperation Council countries was presented. • Discrepancies in certain indicators have been observed by the end-use of electricity consumption. • Improving the efficiency of air conditioners and thermal insulation of the walls are the best measures to conserve electricity in residential buildings. • The results can be used in areas with a similar climate, living standard, buildings types, and the inhabitants' behavior. Energy conservation and improvement in energy efficiency yield multiple technical, economic, environmental, and social benefits and realize comfort and sustainability of residential buildings (RBs). This review paper presents the end-use of electricity consumption in RBs and the results of economic analysis. In addition, a description and discussion of studies on energy conservation measures, Net Zero Energy Building, and renewable energy in RBs are discussed. The percentage of end-used energy consumption for different purposes obtained in many studies are often not consistent. Moreover, discrepancies in certain indicators have been observed, necessitating the need to clarify the factors in the consumption of electricity in RBs. Further, a few studies used the term energy consumption in buildings (total or electrical); however, specifying the type of buildings to identify and use the necessary indicators of energy consumption in each type of building are desirable. Furthermore, most studies emphasized improving the efficiency of air conditioners and thermal insulation of the walls as these are the best measures to conserve electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work, dedicated to a mathematical description of energy transition scenarios, consists of three main parts. The first part describes modern trends and problems of the energy sector. A large number of charts reflecting the latest updates in energy are provided. The COVID-2019 pandemic's impacts on the energy sector are also included. The second part of the paper is dedicated to the analysis of energy consumption and the structure of the world fuel and energy balance. Furthermore, a detailed description of energy-efficient technologies is given. Being important and low-carbon, hydrogen is discussed, including its advantages and disadvantages. The last part of the work describes the mathematical tool developed by the authors. The high availability of statistical data made it possible to identify parameters used in the algorithm with the least squares method and verify the tool. Performing several not complicated steps of the algorithm, the tool allows calculating the deviation of the average global temperature of the surface atmosphere from preindustrial levels in the 21st century under different scenarios. Using the suggested mathematical description, the optimal scenario that makes it possible to keep global warming at a level below 1.7 °C was found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid urbanization, migration from rural to urban areas and industrialization since 1950s, need and demand for energy is ever-increasing in Turkey. For Turkey, who is importing approximately 75 percent of the demanded energy; external dependence, the expenditure of the income from exports for the energy imports, threaten the energy security. To address the mentioned goals of minimizing external dependence, Turkey has accelerated the creation and implementation of policies on alternative energy resources and the efficient use of energy starting from 2000s. Accordingly, these legal arrangements and related actions cannot be carried out adequately enough by central government bodies and their provincial units alone. Approximately 93 percent of the population in Turkey today is living within municipal boundaries, of which 77.6 percent live in metropolitan municipalities boundaries, local governments have a great deal of responsibilities related to energy supply and efficiency, as well as the realization of the energy policies that can be accelerated from part to whole and from local to center. The main purpose of this study is to determine the energy-related political activity areas of local governments and to contribute to the development of a new political dialogue which engage all related stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The main results of a thermodynamic study on the use of a low temperature heat source (150°C as maximum) for power generation through a basic Rankine are reported in this paper. Different working fluids such as water and some hydrocarbons and coolants are studied. The procedure consisted in modifying the input pressure and temperature to the turbine. The efficiency for these fluids is a weak function of temperature, i.e., overheating the inlet fluid to the turbine does not cause a significant change in the efficiency. However, when the pressure ratio in the turbine increases, much larger values of efficiency are obtained, and also, as the input temperature to the turbine rises, the efficiency increases more sharply. As result, a maximum efficiency of 9% was obtained. It is shown the technical viability of implementing this type of process for recovering residual wastes for very low temperature, as well as an energy alternative and/or strengthener of non-conventional energy sources in non-provided zones. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Energy efficiency can be a powerful way to lower energy bills, as well as the external (social) costs associated with energy consumption. Previous experience and research, however, has demonstrated that consumers are often unwilling to make investments in energy efficiency, even when such investments have relatively short payback periods. Because energy efficiency can contribute to correcting negative externalities associated with energy use, subsidies and other programs have been proposed as a way to increase efficiency investments. Thus, under the right circumstances, such subsidies can improve economic efficiency. In this paper, we analyze the economics of energy-efficient space conditioning using data from an actual household in rural Pennsylvania to evaluate ground-source heat pumps (GHP). GHP technology has been advocated as a potentially appealing energy efficiency measure for rural communities. We find that with current subsidies GHP is economically viable for a wide range of electricity prices. We also find, however, that current subsidies are actually greater than those that can be economically justified. Using the efficient level of subsidies reduces, but does not eliminate, the economic case for GHP technology. We also evaluate the economics of efficiency subsidies using an ambitious program in Pennsylvania as a case study. The program, known as the Alternative Energy Investment Act (AEIA), provides subsidies for GHP among other technologies. We find that the substantial federal subsidies for GHP undercut the economic efficiency arguments for the AEIA with respect to GHP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Energy efficiency is a primary consideration when designing off-grid renewable energy systems including portable micro-grids. This study focuses on characterizing the potential benefits associated with using energy efficient exterior area lighting commonly associated with remote installations. Light emitting diode (LED) luminaires are becoming more commercially available, and this study compares two LED products designed for exterior lighting to traditional metal halide lamps. The characterization focuses on the use of a diesel generator, battery bank, and a bank of ultra capacitors (UCAPs) to power the lights because these systems are also used to generate or store energy at renewable energy-powered micro-grids. This field-based study quantifies the illuminance provided by each lighting system, diesel consumption rates associated with powering the lights and/or charging the batteries and UCAPs, and the time of operation for each lighting system when powered by a single discharge cycle of the batteries and UCAPs. The energy efficiency benefit of the LED luminaires is offset by their lower illuminance. However, a comparison of lighting standards for specific purposes such as security lighting indicates that LEDs may be appropriate for applications where a metal halide system would provide significantly more illumination than required at a much higher energy cost. For those purposes where higher levels of illuminance are required, the data presented in the paper may be useful in designing a renewable energy-powered micro-grid that uses multiple LED fixtures to illuminate an exterior area that is currently illuminated by a single metal halide light stand. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Urbanization, sustainability, energy efficiency, information and communication technology (ICT) and nanotechnology are emerging at the beginning of the 21st century. They are seeking to improve environmental effectiveness in the context of connected communities, global competitiveness, economic development, climate change, and demographic shifts. Virtually all proposed solutions to energy consumption and climate change acknowledge the role ICT plays as a key enabler of environmental effectiveness. One of the major challenges that the ICT sector faces today is that hardware is being pushed to its physical limits. The traditional means to reduce product size, increase functionality and enhance computing capabilities are becoming difficult and expensive every passing day. On the other hand, the industry is benefiting from nanotechnology advances with numerous applications including those in smarter sensors, logic elements, computer chips, memory storage devices, optoelectronics, quantum computing, etc. This paper presents an overview of the ICT benefiting from development in nanotechnology with respect to sustainability and energy efficiency. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Industrialization, development and social transformation has brought together issues of over exploitation of limited energy resource base (e.g. fossil fuel), accelerated threats of energy insecurity, and liberation of greenhouse gas emissions across the continents. The global challenge for the 21st century and way ahead is to find other means of satisfying energy needs, diversifying the energy supply, up-scaling the make-up of renewable energy to a greater extent, optimization of energy consumption and supply system. Denmark has been continuously moving towards optimization of energy production, usage and its overall management, during and even after the first global oil crisis. The country has been delivering its priority in the development of renewable energy and standing the country an energy self sufficient from last three decades. Country''s overall consumption of energy has decreased than that of the decades of 1980 and 1990s, with wider range of energy mix and saving options. The Danish government has strategized to make the country fossil fuel free by 2050, where special attention and interventions is required to boost up its development of renewable energy in the country. The past efforts of the Danish government in the energy development has helped not only making the country ‘energy self sufficient’, but also lowering the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Danish energy policy and strategies have been found more conducive and reflective of the joint EU priorities on the matter of dealing with climate change and energy security. All the past progress and its allied policies seem to be quite supportive in fulfilling its strategies for greener future. This review paper will discuss on the past efforts of Danish government in energy management and highlights on some political initiatives, which have been realised to support the country moving towards clean and green energy future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The residential sector accounts for about a third of the total world energy consumption. Energy efficiency, Renewable Energy Sources and Hydrogen can play an important role in reducing the consumptions and the emissions and improving the energy security if integrated (Efficiency, Res, Hydrogen) systems are developed and experimented. The paper analyzes a real residential 100 square meters house, where energy efficiency measures and RES technologies have been applied, sizing a hydrogen system (electrolyzer, metal hydrides and fuel cell) for power backup, taking into consideration its dynamic behavior, experimentally determined. The technologies used are already available in the market and, except hydrogen technologies, sufficiently mature. Through energy efficiency technologies (insulation, absorbers, etc), the maximum electrical and thermal power needed decreases from 4.4 kW e to 1.7 kW e (annual consumption from 5000 kWh to 1200 kWh) and from 5.2 kW t to 1.6 kW t (annual consumption from 14,600 kWh to 4500 kWh) respectively. With these reduced values it has been possible to supply the consumptions entirely by small photovoltaic and solar thermal plants (less than 10 m2 each). The hydrogen backup even if remains the most expensive (versus traditional batteries and gasoline generator), satisfying all the electric needs for one day, increases the security and allows net metering. Moreover the low-pressure hydrogen storage system through metal hydrides guarantees system safety too. Finally the system modularity can also satisfy higher energy production. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Although our understanding of industry cluster dynamics is fairly well developed, it is less clear whether renewable energy firms and related potential suppliers co-locate in similar ways to other more established industries. Consequently, this paper should be primarily viewed as a first step in disentangling the co-locational tendencies of the renewable industry and related potential suppliers. Based on methodology and data developed by the Renewable Energy Policy Project and the North Carolina Sustainable Energy Association, we find that the geography of the potential renewable suppliers is tightly concentrated along the I-85 corridor between Charlotte, the Triad and the Research Triangle region with significant outposts in Hickory, Wilmington and especially Asheville. It also appears that the potential suppliers have co-locational preferences that overlap significantly with actual renewable energy and energy efficiency firms already located in North Carolina. Less well understood is how these potential suppliers and renewable/energy-efficiency firms inter-relate regarding both potential knowledge spillover effects and the formation of formal and informal networks of production—a key area for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper aims to present a review on Malaysia''s national energy developments by looking at various angles in terms of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Energy demand and consumption by sectors are presented as well as the fuel mix in electricity generation. Key energy policies implemented from the incorporation of Malaysia''s national oil company, Petronas in 1974 until the National Green Technology Policy 2009 and a future policy will be addressed. The roles of key players as well as important agencies in energy development are briefly presented. Key programmes in energy development such as Malaysian Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvement Project, Small Renewable Energy Power Programme and Building Energy Efficiency Programme are discussed as well as successful initiatives from the programmes. Malaysia''s international involvements towards reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon emissions especially Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol are highlighted. As a conclusion, Malaysia is aware of its role in formulating its national energy development policies, sensitive towards the country''s development towards the environment and utilization of energy resources as well as conscientious and responsive towards the call for sustainable development in promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Commercialization efforts to diffuse sustainable energy technologies (SETs 1 [1] The SETs can be viewed as a portfolio of technologies, which are expected to use renewable energy resources as input to produce modern energy carriers. ) have so far remained as the biggest challenge in the field of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Limited success of diffusion through government driven pathways urges the need for market based approaches. This paper reviews the existing state of commercialization of SETs in the backdrop of the basic theory of technology diffusion. The different SETs in India are positioned in the technology diffusion map to reflect their slow state of commercialization. The dynamics of SET market is analysed to identify the issues, barriers and stakeholders in the process of SET commercialization. By upgrading the ‘potential adopters’ to ‘techno-entrepreneurs’, the study presents the mechanisms for adopting a private sector driven ‘business model’ approach for successful diffusion of SETs. This is expected to integrate the processes of market transformation and entrepreneurship development with innovative regulatory, marketing, financing, incentive and delivery mechanisms leading to SET commercialization. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy is essential to the way we live. Whether it is in the form of oil, gasoline or electricity, a country''s prosperity and welfare depends on having access to reliable and secure supplies of energy at affordable prices. However, it is also one of the benefits taken for granted by many people, knowing little about the impact of electricity on their lives. Having dependent mainly on oil and gas for half a century, Malaysia has started to realize the importance to adopt renewable energy in the energy mix and continuously reviewed its energy policy to ensure sustainable energy supply and security. This paper examines and discusses the intricacy of the existing and new energy policies, issues and challenges in Malaysia. The overall approach in addressing the energy issues and challenges will continue to focus on adequacy, quality, security and sustainability of both non-renewable and renewable energy supply in the country''s development and the promotion and implementation of its energy efficiency programs. The recently launched National Green Technology Policy is also discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study begins with a review of energy consumption by end-use sector in Hawaii. Then, the energy generated from renewable energy sources is analyzed between 1991 and 2006. The results show that while geothermal is a considerable source of renewable energy on the Island of Hawaii (also known as Big Island), fossil fuel is the main energy source in the State of Hawaii. The energy intensity index for the State of Hawaii is then calculated by dividing energy consumption per capita by the income per capita. The calculated energy intensity index reveals that energy consumption is directly controlled by per capita income. The results also indicate that the energy intensity index increases over time despite positive developments in energy efficient technologies. In the second part of the paper, the effect of the tourism industry on energy usage in the State of Hawaii is analyzed. The results show that tourism volume, measured in terms of tourist arrival numbers, does not change the energy consumption directly. However, a change in tourism volume does affect per capita income within a few months to a year. In the last part of the study, the energy efficiency index of Hawaii is compared with consumption averages for the US, California and the most energy efficient country in Europe, Denmark. The comparison shows that Hawaii lags behind California and Denmark in terms of energy efficiency. The comparison also shows that an increase in energy efficiency corresponds to an increase in per capita income across the board, which is in agreement with a recent report published by the American Physical Society. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Sustainable development in developing countries is the main aim of the Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). However, in the present context, uncertainty prevails as to whether the CDM is actually achieving its aims in terms of achieving sustainable development and to what extent. Chile has several renewable energy and energy efficiency options with significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions abatement potential that are not yet financially and economically competitive. In order to be able to identify potential CDM projects and to formulate a series of possible investment strategies with a sustainable development component, it is crucial to establish a clear understanding of the host country's needs and priorities and the suitable sustainable energy technologies to meet these needs. The main scope of this paper is to present results obtained from an elaborated stakeholder assessment on Chile's high priority energy needs and sustainable energy technologies fulfilling these needs in order to assist Chile in finding ways of encouraging technology transfer that would contribute to low-carbon sustainable energy development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes methodological approaches to assessing the impact of renewable energy and energy efficiency development on emerging economies' energy security. It is suggested to supplement the current methodology for assessing energy security with the decoupling index of the renewable energy financial burden on the state budget, the energy efficiency decoupling index, the households' energy poverty indicator, the index of capacity development for balancing electricity generation volumes, and the energy fluctuations indicator. These indices provide a comprehensive assessment of energy security under the latest challenges. Thus, the COVID-19 pandemic in the Ukrainian energy sector led to the "green and coal paradox", when the government decided to keep green electricity generation but limit nuclear generation. It required increased flexible capacities (thermal generation) and led to a rise in electricity prices and environmental pollution. Forecasting energy fluctuations with Butterworth filters allows minimizing the risks of maximum peak loads on the grid and timely prevention of emergencies. The energy fluctuations within the 20% range guarantee energy security and optimal energy companies' operation. It is proposed to smooth out energy consumption fluctuations through green energy development, smart grids formation, energy efficiency improvements, and energy capacities balancing to ensure energy and economic sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mitigation of climate change is the main issue for environmental policymakers. A large number of authors analysed the impact of various factors on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this paper, we proposed a multiplicative approach to use 2- and 3-way interactions simultaneously in order to analyse the effects of energy efficiency, renewable energy and sector mix as the moderators that shape the economic activity – environmental degradation nexus. The results encompassing global panel data show that the turning point increased from 1990 to 1995 to 2002–2007 and decreased afterwards. Considering the analysis of moderators, a high share of agriculture and industry sectors make the curve flat with a positive slope and a high level of economic activity was associated with more GHG emissions with no turning point. The marginal effect of energy efficiency to reduce the negative impact of agriculture and industry sectors was growing. Meanwhile, the marginal effect of renewables to reduce the negative impact of agriculture and industry sectors was diminishing. Service sector and energy efficiency, service sector and renewables worked as the substituting forces reducing GHG emissions with a diminishing marginal rate of substitution. Therefore, this study confirms that the economic activity – environmental degradation relationship is very complex and further studies should consider the role of the moderators of this nexus. [Display omitted] • Technique, composition effects should be considered as moderators of HGH emissions. • The multiplicative approach was applied to model interactions of GHG factors. • Agriculture, industry sectors made the economic activity GHG emissions curve flat. • Marginal effect of renewables to reduce GHG emissions was diminishing. • Service sector and renewables worked as substituting forces reducing emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Electricity generated from renewable sources, which has shown remarkable growth worldwide, can rarely provide immediate response to demand as these sources do not deliver a regular supply easily adjustable to consumption needs. Thus, the growth of this decentralized production means greater network load stability problems and requires energy storage, generally using lead batteries, as a potential solution. However, lead batteries cannot withstand high cycling rates, nor can they store large amounts of energy in a small volume. That is why other types of storage technologies are being developed and implemented. This has led to the emergence of storage as a crucial element in the management of energy from renewable sources, allowing energy to be released into the grid during peak hours when it is more valuable. The work described in this paper highlights the need to store energy in order to strengthen power networks and maintain load levels. There are various types of storage methods, some of which are already in use, while others are still in development. We have taken a look at the main characteristics of the different electricity storage techniques and their field of application (permanent or portable, long- or short-term storage, maximum power required, etc.). These characteristics will serve to make comparisons in order to determine the most appropriate technique for each type of application. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Since the 1970s, Canada has formulated various strategy measures to accelerate the development of energy efficiency systems and renewable energy technologies and has made significant progress. “From 1990 to 2003, Canada''s energy efficiency improved by an estimated 13%, or 883.3petajoules, saving Canadians almost $13.4billion in 2003 alone and reducing annual greenhouse gas emissions by 52.3megatonnes”. In 2000, about 17% of Canadian primary energy supply came from renewable sources (with hydroelectric, combustible renewables and waste). Canada is a leader in devising and implementing energy options for sustainable development. However, the nation still has great scope for furthering energy efficiency and more use of renewable energy. Canada has a higher aggregate intensity—absolute energy use per capita or per unit of GDP—than most International Energy Agency (IEA) countries, ranking second and fourth, respectively. In 2000, Canada used only a small amount of renewable energy (without hydroelectric, combustible renewables and waste), accounting for 1.3% of its primary energy supply. Canada has made little use of wind power compared to other industrialized countries. By June 2004, Canada''s installed capacity was 341megawatts (MW), compared to 13,407MW installed by late 2003 in Germany, the country with the largest installed capacity. Canada''s current small-scale hydroelectric capacity is about 2000MW. Canada also has a few grid-connected wood-waste-fired power plants operational or under construction, with a maximum capacity of 60MW. By 1999, Canada was generating 85.3MW of electricity from captured municipal landfill gas. It is also worth noting that solar power is now finding niche applications in Canada, despite the fact that its cost remains relatively high (although falling). Canada is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol. It has committed to reducing its emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2008–2012. But Canada''s emissions level was already 24% above 1990 levels by 2003. As nearly 90% of all anthropogenic GHG emissions in Canada result from the production and consumption of fossil fuels, meeting the Kyoto target will challenge all Canadian governments and the energy industry to develop new and more effective strategies for speeding the development of sustainable energy to limit GHG emissions. There is an urgent need for analyzing current strategies of sustainable energy in Canada and examining the issues of these strategies. In theory and practice, however, there has so far been no a clear, integrated and comprehensive strategy framework for sustainable energy in Canada. Nor a clear definition of sustainable energy strategy was formulated. In this paper, we attempted to define sustainable energy strategy as the energy strategy aiming at improving energy efficiency and promoting renewable energy. Based on the definition above, we formulated an analytical framework for developing the strategies of sustainable energy. In the analytical framework, (1) sustainable energy strategy embraces strategic objectives, measures and management; (2) sustainable energy strategy is divided into two major groups: energy efficiency strategy and renewable energy strategy; (3) strategy measures of energy efficiency are classified as ten types; and (4) strategy measures of renewable energy are classified as four types. We have employed the framework to analyze current strategic objectives, strategic measures and policy and management strategies concerning sustainable energy in Canada and examine the issues of these strategies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

High consumption of fossil fuels, increased greenhouse gas emissions and deterioration of local air quality have resulted from rapid industrialization and urbanization in India in the last decade. India has taken many initiatives to address these problems such as new automobile fuel policies, energy efficiency measures, promotion of renewable energy use, relocation of highly polluting industries, enforcing use of low emission fuels like CNG for public transport in large cities, and introducing metro rail networks in megacities. This paper highlights results of adopted policies in Delhi showing relationships between air quality and climate change and having sustainable development as the driving force with focus on environmental and social dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advancements in residential net-zero energy buildings (NZEBs) could significantly reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. NZEB design considerations broadly categorize into energy infrastructure connections, renewable energy sources, and energy-efficiency measures. There is a lack of systematic literature review focused on recent progress in residential NZEBs. Therefore, this work provides an overview of each category including recent developments (last ≈ 10 years), aiming to provide references and support of wider and more successful implementation of residential NZEBs throughout the globe. The discussed energy infrastructure connections include electrical grids, district heating/cooling networks, and energy storage options including vehicle-to-home and hydrogen storage. Renewable energy sources considered here are solar photovoltaic and solar thermal, wind, and biomass including micro combined heat and power (CHP) systems. The final category detailed is energy-efficiency measures, which include improved building envelope designs, efficient HVAC systems, efficient domestic hot water systems, and phase change material integration. Within these categories there are many technology options, which makes selecting the 'best' configuration more difficult but allows design flexibility to adapt to local climates and other considerations (i.e. building codes, energy resources, costs). This paper provides references and highlights technology options to achieve residential NZEBs throughout the world. [Display omitted] • Overview of net-zero energy building (NZEB) development, research, strategies, and implementation targets. • Renewable energy sources: solar photovoltaic (PV), solar PV/T, solar thermal, wind, biomass, combined heat & power. • Infrastructure connections: electric grid, district heating/cooling, energy storage. • Energy-efficiency measures: building envelope design, HVAC, hot water, phase-change material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The climate mitigation and the reduction of energy cost in manufacturing processes drive to expand the electricity generation from renewable sources. Nonetheless, intermittency of renewable energies, especially solar and wind energy, represents one on the main challenge, typically overcome by the installation of electricity storage systems. This issue can be addressed by a new and original approach, consisting in energy-flexibility of the production, in which manufacturing parameters are selected to optimize and to align production planning to the renewable energy availability. The paper deals with a time dependent theoretical and numerical model developed to calculate the time evolution of the electric power required by a manufacturing system, self-consistently coupled with a renewable plant. The aim of the model is to align the power required by the manufacturing system with the renewable energy supply in order to obtain the maximum monthly profit. The model has been applied to a single work center powered by the electric grid and by a photo-voltaic system, performing the machining process over one year of production. The model includes the tool cost, the stocked units, the energy cost and the penalty for the unsatisfied demand. The maximum profit has been calculated with a hourly adaption of manufacturing parameters, i.e. the cutting speed, to the renewable time dependent power profile. The model presents general features and can be applied when production processes are fully characterized. In order to find the maximum profit, the model, inherently nonlinear, has been solved by recurring to the Trust-Region Method. Different scenarios characterized by fluctuations of product demand are considered in order to investigate the sensitivity of the manufacturing system to the uncertainty of the forecast demand. The influence of the photo-voltaic supply has been investigated, comparing results obtained in the case of manufacturing systems powered only by the electric grid. Numerical results show how the proposed method allows to select an optimized production planning, reducing the energy costs and CO 2 emissions and finding the maximum profit with the best compromise between the market demand and energy costs. • Energy-flexibility consists in the alignment of production to renewable sources. • The optimization method maximizes the profit with a photovoltaic plant. • Time dependent machine parameters are controlled by coupling with renewable source. • The optimization method can work with the uncertainty of the forecast demand. • The optimization method reduces the energy bought from the grid and CO 2 emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermoelectric generation technology is considered to be one of the viable methods to convert waste heat energy directly into electricity. The utilization of this technology has been impeded due to low energy conversion efficiency. This paper aims to improve the energy conversion efficiency of the thermoelectric generator (TEG) model with a novel maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique. A variable fractional order fuzzy logic controller (VFOFLC)-based MPPT technique is proposed in the present work in which the operating point of the TEG is moved quickly towards an optimal position to increase the energy harvesting. The fraction order term α, introduced in the MPPT algorithm, will expand or contract the input domain of the fuzzy logic controller (FLC to shorten the tracking time and maintain a steady-state output around the maximum power point (MPP). The performance of the proposed MPPT technique was verified with the TEG model by simulation using MATLAB /SIMULINK software. Then, the overall performance of the VFOFLC-based MPPT technique was analyzed and compared with Perturb and observe (P&O) and incremental resistance (INR)-based MPPT techniques. The obtained results confirm that the proposed MPPT technique can improve the energy conversion efficiency of the TEG by harvesting the maximum power within a shorter time and maintaining a steady-state output when compared to other techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current energy inefficiencies in relocatable temporary camps of the Armed Force troops create logistic challenges associated with fuel supply. The energy needs of these camps are primarily satisfied by diesel engine generators, which imply that a significant amount of fuel needs to be continuously provided to these camps, often built in remote areas. This paper presents an alternative solution, named Smart Hybrid Energy System (SHES), aiming towards significantly reducing the amount of fuel needed and minimizing transportation logistics while meeting camp energy demands. The SHES combines the existing diesel generators with solar power generation, energy storage, and waste heat recovery technologies, all connected to a microgrid, ensuring uninterrupted electricity and hot water supplies. All components are controlled by an energy management system that prioritizes output and switches between different power generators, ensuring operation at optimum efficiencies. The SHES components have been selected to be easily transportable in standard shipping 20 ft containers. The modularity of the solution, scalable from the base camp for 150 people, is designed according to available on-site renewable sources, allowing for energy optimization of different camp sizes in different climates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although several studies have recognized the challenges brought about the high integration of Renewable Energy Sources (RES), research has yet to systematically investigate the effects of different levels of Energy Efficiency Measures (EEMs) on power systems with a high share of RES. The primary aim of this paper is to quantitatively evaluate the economic impact of different levels of energy efficiency investments in systems with a high share of RES, based on the case of Brazil. Our review analysis revealed a lack of understanding of how to calculate the Long-term Average Cost of Saved Electricity (LACoSE). Therefore, the methodological contribution of this research also lies in the proposition of a step-by-step procedure to estimate this variable. Findings of this study suggest that EEMs may result in a reduction in the expected new installed capacity between 1.9% and 10.3%, and from 0.4% to 4.3% for the total CO 2 emissions (for reductions in the final electricity demand varying from 1% to 5% respectively). This comes with a decrease in the overall system costs between 1.9% and 7.7%. The results provide further support for the hypothesis that the economic impacts of energy efficiency investments and its cost-effectiveness are affected by the share of RES in the power system and these type of measures may provide holistic benefits including not only economic advantages but also environmental and social improvements. The proposed methodology largely extends beyond the case addressed as it may provide valuable lessons for other electricity systems. • Cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency measures is assessed for a renewable system. • A methodology is proposed to calculate the Long-term Average Cost of Saved Electricity (LACoSE). • The economic benefits are positive for the power system evaluated. • Results are not highly influenced by the estimated LACoSE. • Findings would support the development of effective energy efficiency policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A set of indexes to measure energy efficiency achieved in local areas is proposed. • The distance of each observation from efficient/ideal threshold is calculated. • Pilot testing was performed on 20 Regions of Italy. • A support to policy makers in financial resource programming is offered. The basic idea of this paper is that an efficient energy planning requires a deepened awareness of the state of place. By considering the complexity of this issue - that involves both production, consumption, impacts on the environment and policy aspects - a multidimensional analysis should be implemented. The aim of the study is to propose an innovative approach for achieving increased efficiency energy by reducing the existent differential among the local areas. The approach consists of two main steps: i) the building of LEEI (Local Energy efficiency Index) and further four sub-indexes - designed by using a Principal Component Analysis - for assessing the level of local efficiency; ii) the measurement of the distance between the score achieved in the ranking by each observation and a threshold calculated as best compromise situation - realized by using a redrafted Sen Index. This methodology has been tested on a sample of 20 Italian provinces. The findings allow to provide information to policy makers concerning the overall energy efficiency of an area through a vertical comparison among the observation; while the four sub-indexes offer specific indication about the multidimensionality of the analysed phenomenon. This final step helps to offer punctual information for a future allocation to the regions, for a financial resource programming on the bases of the real weakness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Healthcare institutions consume large amounts of energy, ranking the second highest energy-intensive buildings in the commercial sector. Within developed countries, the energy consumption of healthcare institutions may account for up to 18% of the overall energy usage in commercial sectors. Within developing countries, such as South Africa, the energy consumption of healthcare institutions is observed to be a close second to the food service sector. Energy consumption of healthcare institutions per bed typically range from 43–92 kWh per day. In this paper, the largest energy consumers in South African healthcare institutions are identified and appropriate energy-efficiency (EE) initiatives are proposed, in terms of performance, operation, equipment and technology efficiency (POET). Two main thermal energy consumers are identified as heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and water-heating systems. These systems are critical to patient health and may be classified as non-deferrable loads. Therefore, several initiatives are suggested to improve the energy efficiency and demand-side management capability of these systems. These initiatives are subdivided into different levels: the conceptual level, active level, technical and further improvement level, as defined in the POET framework. At each level, energy-efficiency initiatives are introduced based on potential energy savings and the effort required to achieve these savings. In addition, model predictive control (MPC) approaches are discussed and reviewed as part of the further improvement section. Average possible energy savings ranged from 50%–70% at the conceptual level, while energy savings of 15%–30% may be expected for energy-efficiency initiatives at the active level. EE activities at the technical level and the further improvement level may result in savings of 50%–70% and 5%–10%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As increasing power consumption is becoming a huge problem, renewable energy has been highlighted recently. Many companies and research centers study this new sustainable energy, and various products have appeared to the public. However, this kind of researches concentrates on the elemental technologies, and now a management system is needed to manage these technologies to maximize energy efficiency. In this paper, we propose the system of Intelligent Energy Distribution Management (iEDM) to monitor fastchanging environmental variables and manage solar power flexibly. Compared with normal utility interactive systems, the iEDM improves the energy efficiency up to 5.6 percent. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]