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The EU has set the ambitious target of raising the share of EU energy consumption produced from renewable resources to 32% by 2030, with a target of climate neutrality by 2050. The aim of this paper is to assess the role of biomass usage in the context of these targets. The paper identifies the progress made between 2013 and 2022 by focusing on a selection of EU countries. The largest bioenergy increments of 130, 77, and 60 PJ were reported for Poland, Sweden, and the Netherlands. This study evaluates the crucial role of co-generation and heat in EU regions, with biomass usage between 55 and 80% of the combined heat and power (CHP) energy in Nordic countries. The future perspectives for bioenergy based on EU policies, biomass resources, and technical issues were addressed. The EU possesses around 9% of the global biomass supply, ensuring a certain level of biomass resource dependence. Thus, the biomass usage demand in energy production, non-energy sectors, and transport is expected to rise, leading to increments of 13–76% on biomass imports. It appears that bioenergy development is mostly limited by economic issues and uneven support for bioenergy in different EU countries as well as environmental issues. The study shows a promising and sustainable potential of bioenergy in the EU as a renewable energy source while minimizing negative impacts on the environment and the economy. By 2050, liquid biofuels are likely to be increasingly used in the transport sector. Non-energy sector usage of biomass is still in an early stage of development, except for the pulp and paper industry, and significant use of biomass in non-energy sectors seems unlikely in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European Union, increasing attention is already being paid not only to the development of renewable energy sources, but also to the establishment of solutions to achieve local energy self-sufficiency while increasing the role of citizens in managing the energy they generate. This approach is expected both to have a positive impact on the environment and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and to enhance energy security—both in economic and civic terms by, i.a., combating energy poverty. The development of local energy communities promoted in the EU is supported i.a. by energy cooperatives. These contribute to the efficient harnessing of renewable energy potential in rural and urban-rural areas, and have been developing in Poland for several years now. In their previous studies, the authors of this research paper attempted to verify the generation (number, type and capacity of installed sources) and consumption (energy demand) configurations in which an energy cooperative would be a viable solution for prosumers who might establish it. However, over the past few years, the conditions for prosumers and the method of their accounting with the electricity seller have changed radically in Poland (shift from net metering to net billing). This situation has opened up space for further research and encouraged the authors to revisit the problem of analyzing the viability of establishing energy cooperatives in relation to the rules of operation of individual prosumers. This research was carried out for three scenarios, and the horizon of the analyses conducted and described extends to 2045. The comparative analysis included energy consumers without their own generation sources, prosumers with a photovoltaic generation installation covered by the net billing model, as well as a scenario involving prosumers' cooperation within an energy cooperative, which by law is settled in the net metering model. Conclusions from the research and simulations made it possible to confirm the claim that, despite changes in the rules of prosumer billing, developing energy independence in the energy community formula results in a significant reduction in the cost of purchasing electricity (even several times lower purchase costs in the timeframe analyzed) and can lead to a reduction in the payback time of investments in generation sources even by a factor of two. The results presented in this research paper open up space for further research. The outcomes allow us to assume that energy cooperatives—in the organizational and institutional model in Poland—are a good tool for reducing the phenomenon of energy poverty on a local scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green transition is a challenge for the Polish economy and energy sector. In this paper, the expert method of analysis was applied and findings revealed that the challenges and prerequisites for an effective transformation of the power sector mainly include technical, technological and organizational issues of energy production and use. The provision of electricity at competitive prices and with a low carbon footprint, for individual consumers and industry, is a prerequisite for maintaining the well-being of the population and ensuring the competitiveness of domestically produced goods. The ambitious climate policy goals of the European Union require immediate action and call for radical changes in the Polish energy sector; in the coming years, it must drastically reduce the amount of energy produced from fossil fuels and replace it with so-called green energy from renewable sources. The main purpose of this article was to highlight the need to modify Poland's energy policy until 2040 in order to make it more consistent with the ambitious climate goals of the European Union. This article also shows that Poland's energy transition must include a shift from fossil fuels to renewables, while ensuring that energy security is stabilized by the current energy and generation resources. To this end, we discuss the issues of creating reserves in the national energy system for the entire period of Poland's energy transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aim of this study was to assess the investment activity of basic local government units in the development of renewable energy sources co-financed by EU funds depending on CO2 emissions and other socio-economic conditions in terms of regions of Poland in the years 2007–2020. Empirical studies aimed at the verification of the research hypothesis that "the greatest investment activity in local projects co-financed from EU funds related to the development of renewable energy sources is observed for local government units in regions with highest CO2 emissions". Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the National Centre for Emissions Management. Thus, the conducted analyses provide both cognitive and applicatory values for the establishment of an appropriate energy transition policy in individual regions of Poland, which may be implemented by local government authorities within the current financial framework. Data concerning CO2 emissions at the regional level were estimated by applying the original disaggregation method as modified by the authors, which made it possible to fill the research gap resulting from the lack of data on emissions at the regional level. In order to show the regional diversification in investment activity of local government units in terms of renewable energy sources, its multi-faceted analysis was conducted by applying the Ward method. Clusters of regions with similar investment activity of local government units were described based on characteristics included in the typological classification (so-called active characteristics) and selected indexes showing CO2 emission levels, as well as selected socio-economic indexes (so-called passive characteristics). Based on the empirical studies, the research hypothesis presented in this paper was negatively verified. Considering both multiannual financial frameworks, the EU financial support for the development of renewable energy sources was used primarily by local government units of a predominantly agricultural character, and less advanced in terms of their development but exhibiting conditions conducive to renewable energy development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is indisputable that power systems are being transformed around the world to increase the use of RES and reduce the use of fossil fuels in overall electricity production. This year, the EU Parliament adopted the Fit for 55 package, which should significantly reduce the use of fossil fuels in the energy balance of EU countries while increasing the use of RES. At the end of 2022, the total number of prosumer installations in Poland amounted to about one million two hundred thousand. Such a high saturation of prosumer micro-installations in the power system causes many threats resulting from their operation. These threats result, among others, from the fact that photovoltaics are classified as unstable sources and the expected production of electricity from such installations is primarily associated with highly variable weather conditions and is only dependent on people to a minor extent. Currently, there is a rapid development of topics related to forecasting the volume of energy production from unstable sources such as wind and photovoltaic power plants. This issue is being actively developed by research units around the world. Scientists use a whole range of tools and models related to forecasting techniques, from physical models to artificial intelligence. According to our findings, the use of machine learning models has the greatest chance of obtaining positive prognostic effects for small, widely distributed prosumer installations. The present paper presents the research results of two energy balance prediction algorithms based on machine learning models. For forecasting, we proposed two regression models, i.e., regularized LASSO regression and random forests. The work analyzed scenarios taking into account both endogenous and exogenous variables as well as direct multi-step forecasting and recursive multi-step forecasting. The training was carried out on real data obtained from a prosumer micro-installation. Finally, it was found that the best forecasting results are obtained with the use of a random forest model trained using a recursive multi-step method and an exogenous scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of ongoing climate changes and the current geopolitical situation, Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are continuously gaining popularity in many countries. Objectives related to environmental protection and the use of RES set by different countries all over the world, as well as by the European Union (EU), are becoming priorities for many. The increase in the installed capacity of photovoltaic systems has been growing steadily for several years, leading to the creation of new systems accompanying PV installations; this phenomenon has also been observed in Poland. This paper presents a photovoltaic system in the form of a bicycle shed next to a school building as an example of building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) without connection to the power grid. It was shown that the energy consumption profile should be properly correlated with the production profile, otherwise significant losses occur. Alternative methods to improve the correlation of production and energy consumption by using SCADA systems or building automation to properly manage the electricity generation and consumption installation were also proposed. Furthermore, it was shown that adopting a fixed discount rate in financial analyses can distort the picture of real profits. An analysis of the changes in the NPV ratio using variable discount rates was carried out when analyzing the entire life of the solar plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) into energy systems requires a meticulous assessment of various factors, spanning renewable energy potential, legal frameworks, technical considerations, community engagement, and consumer preferences. This article synthesizes a multifaceted discussion on the subject, focusing on the need for comprehensive analyses before deciding to implement SMRs. Drawing insights from geographic information systems (GIS) and lessons from renewable energy development in Poland, this paper underscores the significance of aligning energy strategies with local needs, emphasizing stakeholder participation. This study examines the factors influencing location attractiveness for various energy technologies, including small modular nuclear reactors (SMRs), wind, solar, and hydroelectric power plants, within Poland. Employing 17 indicators sourced from Statistics Poland and URE, coupled with the application of the k-means algorithm, we outline four distinct clusters that delineate the zones of location attractiveness for SMRs and other renewable energy sources. While large and medium-sized cities exhibit optimal location attractiveness, coastal counties in northern Poland emerge as more suitable for renewable energy sources than for SMRs. The study outlines four distinct energy development strategies based on typologies of regions, each tailored to maximize the utility of available resources and minimize environmental impact. The strategies encompass renewable energy utilization, energy efficiency enhancement, energy diversification, and adaptation through innovation. Emphasizing the interplay between renewable energy potential, energy demand, and local conditions, the research suggests the strategic deployment of SMRs as part of an energy mix in areas where renewable energy resources are limited. By leveraging SMRs' continuous energy production, these reactors can complement intermittent renewables, bolstering energy security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy is a key driver of all modern economies. Sustainable development is playing an increasingly important role both at regional and local levels. It is a compromise between social and economic needs and the preservation of nature. In the policy of the European Union, the idea of sustainable development and environmental protection is of decisive importance for the implemented programs and economic activities. Contemporary challenges require the transformation of the energy market towards greater use of renewable sources. According to Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and European Council on promoting energy from renewable sources, Poland has committed itself to achieving a 23% share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption by 2030. This goal considers total energy consumption in terms of power, engineering, heating, refrigeration, and transport. The aim of this paper was, firstly, an analysis of the share of renewable energy in the European Union over an 18-year period (2004–2021), with particular emphasis on the position of Poland. The second objective was the analysis of renewable energy at the local level in Poland, i.e., at the local government unit (LAU) level. Changes in the share of renewable energy in Poland compared to other European countries were also examined. The study utilized functional analysis of principal components and cluster analysis based on the data from the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT. The study found that while Poland does not differ significantly from other countries in using renewable energy, it does fall below the European average. Principal component analysis suggests that Poland responds adequately to European changes in the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption. This dynamic is stable (over 95% explained by the first component) and applies to most countries surveyed. In addition, the authors sought to answer questions relating to the current status of renewable energy sources in Poland, the barriers and challenges facing the introduction of renewable energy in the country, a comparative analysis of Poland's progress in renewable energy with other global counterparts, and an exploration of the future prospects and potential for the development of renewable energy in Poland. The study found that the potential for renewable energy is greatest in the northern areas of Poland, with photovoltaics and wind power plants providing the greatest capacity. Poland's renewable energy potential is very high and will be determined by technological development, political, economic, and social issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective implementation of renewable energy sources (RES) is one of the main challenges in regard to the organization of local energy microgrids with buildings. One of the solutions is the use of dynamic building façades with photovoltaic (PV) panels, in particular the innovative perovskite solar cells (PSCs). This paper describes a case study performed on a pilot installation of perovskite PV panels located in Poland, Central-Eastern Europe. Results of preliminary measurements on this installation are provided in terms of verifying its energy efficiency and the possibility of selecting settings for the façade dynamics control system. Our experiments have considered the sun-tracking mechanism and its energy consumption as well as the impact of weather conditions at different times of the year. The energy efficiency results for the PV system, with average levels below 10%, are rather low. Therefore, even small energy savings in the operation of the PV system itself are significant. Changes in control scenarios for sun-tracking have been proposed and have obtained a reduction from 5% to 1% of energy consumption in autumn and from almost 3.2% to 0.6% in spring, in relation to overall energy produced by the PV system. The need for further experimental research from the perspective of the development and extension of the analyzed installation is pointed out as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of conducted research was to recognize factors determining households' Energy transition and barriers that slow that process. Energy transition itself, understood as a shift in the structure of fuels used in energy production and technological changes related to its use, are key elements of shaping the economy. It was determined to what extent existing household renewable energy installations meet the energy needs of their residents and what factors encourage their installation. In addition, barriers limiting energy transition as perceived by household members were identified. The research used data from the EUROSTAT and the results of surveys conducted using the CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview) and PAPI (Paper and Pencil Interview) techniques among households in Poland. The methods of descriptive statistics, the chi-square test of independence, the Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA test, the Mann–Whitney U test and logistic regression were used to analyze the research results. The analyses show that fossil fuels dominate in energy production in Poland. The share of renewable energy sources in the gross final energy consumption in 2020 was 16.1%. Their structure is dominated by photovoltaic installations with a share of 52%. Further increase in energy prices and fears of interruptions in energy supplies will favor the further increase in the number of installations for renewable energy sources. According to the respondents, the energy efficiency has a significant impact on the quality of life and environment, but the main barriers to its development include financial constraints of households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generating energy from renewable sources is becoming more and more popular and widespread. Air source heat pumps are one of the most popular types of heat pumps due to the general availability of a heat source and relatively low investment costs. The aim of the paper was to investigate the impact of the use of air heat pumps on the improvement of energy efficiency of Silesian Botanical Garden facilities in Poland. Year-round numerical analyses of energy consumption were carried out with the use of IDA ICE software, based on data received from the facility administrator. Different variants of the boiler room configuration including air-to-water heat pumps were analysed. The results showed that implementation of heat pumps led to significant decrease of energy consumption in the building and reduction of values of Primary Energy and CO2 emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving energy efficiency includes a number of measures implemented as part of the greening of the energy industry, which in turn is a prerequisite for the creation of a sustainable energy industry to ensure energy and environmental security for the world. Despite the adoption of the EU directives on energy efficiency, there is still insufficient public awareness in this area in Poland and Slovakia. This is particularly surprising because improving energy efficiency not only brings national and global benefits, but also has a significant impact on the well-being of individuals and households. The main purpose of the paper is to analyze the national policies of Poland and Slovakia, which are based on the European Directive 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency, and which introduce new measures aimed not only at increasing energy efficiency, but also at increasing the well-being of households and individuals. Methods of desk research and content analysis were used. The current situation in both countries is illustrated by case studies that document the administrative process (Slovakia) and the calculation of energy savings (Poland) when using renewable energy sources in the case of family houses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the study was to identify the state of residential buildings in terms of energy consumption and modernisation in Poland against the background of the EU, and to determine factors and activities increasing households′ interest in net-zero energy buildings. In the European Union, we are observing a tendency to increase the energy efficiency of buildings, including residential, and decarbonise building stock by 2050. The objective of the undertaken activities is to reduce energy use and the negative impacts of the use of buildings on the environment. Attaining this objective requires modernising many buildings. This dissertation includes an investigation into the condition of buildings in Poland from the aspect of energy use and the kind of carriers of this energy, and also into another issue: what factors and activities may increase society′s interest in net-zero energy buildings, and in the use of energy from renewable sources in residential buildings. The studies were conducted with the use of the data provided by the Central Statistical Office and EUROSTAT, and also of the reports of the European Commission, the data of the Central Emission Register of Buildings (CERB) and the Odysse–Mure database. An important source of information was also surveys conducted with the application of CAWI (Computer-Assisted Web Interview), and also of PAPI (Paper and Pencil Interview), among 387 households in Poland. For the purpose of analysing the results of the studies, the methods of descriptive statistics, the chi-square test of independence, the ANOVA test of Kruskal–Wallis and the Mann–Whitney U-test were used. The analysis gives rise to the conclusion that, in residential buildings, household′s annual primary energy demand is dependent on the year in which a building was commissioned. Newer buildings can boast smaller heat energy use. Simultaneously, ever more households are undertaking activities that will result in the thermal modernisation of residential buildings. The studies have shown that the development of net-zero energy buildings requires undertaking activities in the scope of introducing allowances and subsidies, and also increasing social awareness in the scope of this kind of building. Interest in buildings using solely renewable energy sources is contributed to by raising energy prices, and also the falling prices of required installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland remains the most coal-dependent economy in the EU. To minimize that problem, which is particularly clear and dangerous in the period of a shortage of fossil fuels, the Polish authorities have decided to establish various institutions, organizational and regulatory solutions. Their role is to support the development of renewable energy sources and local energy communities. The latter are to focus on optimizing the production and consumption of energy in pursuit of energy self-sufficiency on a local scale. One such institution, set up in Poland over the last several years, is the energy cooperative, which is intended to increase the efficient use of the potential of renewable energy sources in rural and urban–rural areas. The authors of this article verify the assumptions, for instance, the number, composition or production and members' consumption profiles, under which such a relatively new institution has the chance to develop. A novelty in this research paper is that the interests of the entities composing a given energy cooperative may additionally be secured by the use of surplus generation for crypto-coin mining, and thus the storage of energy in virtual currency. A dedicated mathematical model in mixed-integer programming technology was used, enriched with respect to previous research, making it possible for members of the cooperative to achieve energy independence while maximizing self-consumption and using their excess energy for processing cryptocurrency. This is in line with the global trend of "greening"; the processes of acquiring electronic money. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biofuels are becoming more important in the renewable energy sources mix. Liquid biofuels are products of agriculture. Bioethanol can be prepared from corn, beetroot and other plants. Biodiesel is mainly made from rapeseed. This paper presents information about biodiesel development in Poland, as well as some background information about its development in the European Union (EU). We analyzed the data about biofuels in the literature, and provide statistical data about liquid biofuel in Poland and other countries of the EU. The aim of the study is to assess the viability of liquid biofuel development in Poland. The base for biodiesel production in Poland and the EU is rapeseed. The production yields and sown area of rapeseed increased in Poland from 2005–2020. This was due to integration and European Union policies which aim to supply clean energy. The energy mix in Poland differs from that of the EU. Solid biofuels have made up the biggest share of renewable energy sources in Poland (73.4%) and the EU (40.1%). Poland has smaller share of wind energy, biogas, heat pump, water energy, solar anergy, municipal waste and geothermal energy in its renewable energy sources compared to the rest of the EU. Only with solid and liquid biofuels is the share of renewable energy sources larger in Poland compared to the EU averages. Poland has decreased its share of solid biofuels and water energy among its renewable energy sources, while other sources have increased. Poland is investing to increase its renewable energy sources. To analyze the opportunities for biodiesel production in Poland, we used the scenario method of analysis. We outlined three scenarios. The first is increasing the production of biodiesel by 3% each year for the next three years. The second is production remains unchanged, i.e., at the 2020 level. The last scenario is decreasing production by 3% each year. According to the first scenario, the total demand for rapeseed for energy and food purposes will be 375 thousand tons in 2025. Such a scenario is very likely to occur because of the growing demand for biodiesel and edible oil. The current situation with Ukraine and the Russian Federation will create an increase in demand for rapeseed, leading to higher prices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays the demand for renewable energy sources is constantly growing. There are several reasons of such state, including requirements for energy-efficient new buildings and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. An exemplary solution that may help to reduce "traditional" primary energy consumption is local energy source utilization. The article presents a simplified feasibility study of hybrid energy system under Polish law and economic conditions for a self-government unit, that is legally obliged to apply means of energy efficiency improvement. The aim of this paper is to provide a simple algorithm to find optimal hybrid PV and wind power source sizing for a prosumer. Resource data used in analyses are imported from Photovoltaic Geographical Information System and cover a period of one year. The paper includes two different methodologies applied to solve the problem of optimal hybrid energy system sizing. The first approach is heuristic and based on monthly energy balancing while the second is iterative and takes into account hourly energy balance. The results from both methods are compared and verified by HomerPro software, that shows significant differences between two algorithms. At the end economic assessment based on Net Present Value method is performed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of the paper are to identify and assess the determinants of transition to renewable and sustainable energy development in Azerbaijan and Poland. Both countries have a clear target to increase the share of renewable energy sources (RES) in the gross final energy consumption, i.e. Poland in the National Energy and Climate Plan for the years 2021–2030 declares that it wishes to achieve 21–23% by 2030 (total consumption in electricity, heating and cooling as well as for transport purposes). But there are currently significant producers and consumers of conventional energy carriers, respectively coal and oil, and these fuels ensure an appropriate level of energy security and production stability. Moreover, in Poland, the mining sector plays a very important social role, whereas the oil industry in Azerbaijan creates significant budget revenue. Therefore, even with stronger EU and worldwide climate policy and a decreasing cost of cleaner forms of energy, there are many challenges and obstacles for such countries in increasing energy from RES associated with energy security, efficiency, existing infrastructure, competitiveness and social aspects. In order to identify best practices for the transition to decarbonisation, the availability of energy resources, energy market structures, national strategies and policies were compared using PESTEL analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is necessary in agricultural consulting to take into account the current problems as well as economic and social challenges facing rural areas. Undoubtedly, sustainable economy and energy policy is such a problem in Poland, including the issue of access to energy from renewable sources and financial possibilities of meeting the electricity demand of households and agriculture. Therefore, advisory and information activities in the field of reducing energy poverty and improving air quality are important. The main purpose of the paper was to identify and assess the role of advisory entities in the process of counteracting energy poverty in rural areas in Poland. The basic research method was an expert (survey) study. Research shows that the subject of energy poverty is relatively rarely taken up by consulting institutions as part of training courses, especially issues related to saving electricity in the household/agricultural sector are marginalized; monitoring and analysis of energy consumption; selection of technical devices in terms of energy efficiency. Based on expert research, there were identified consultancy activities that are and may be important in the topic under study. Experts indicated co-financing of activities in the field of energy efficiency as the preferred way to fight energy poverty in agriculture and rural areas. The results may constitute an important direction in the development of consultancy, the basis for building priority programs, which in turn may affect the behaviour and actions of farmers and other inhabitants of rural areas in the context of energy transformation. The performed research may constitute the basis for further, in-depth analyses in other countries and on an international scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geothermal energy can be an attractive source of renewable energy in many respects. The purpose of this paper is to assess the role of geothermal energy in the West Pomeranian Region of Poland. The article presents the key principles of geothermal energy development, its role, functions and perspectives in fostering renewable energy usage in the region in question. Strengths, weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats of using geothermal energy are analysed based on the literature review. A regional geothermal energy development model is proposed. The study is based on statistical data. The results of the conducted study show that geothermal energy can be an important source of regional energy supply in the West Pomeranian Region. However, advantages and shortcomings should be taken into account when deciding on the promotion of geothermal energy in the selected region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind as a renewable energy source is characterized by rapid growth of installed power in many countries, including Poland, where its share in the electricity production has grown over 25 times in the last decade, now reaching about 10%. Since renewable energy has priority in access to the grid, it forces the dispatchable coal-fired power plants to adjust their load. This causes additional consumption of primary energy due to more frequent shut-downs/start-ups and due to efficiency penalty when operating below nominal parameters. In this paper, actual data on the operation of Polish power plants in several years are analysed. The analysis, together with simulations of performance of the power system without the presence of wind energy, focuses on the influence of wind power plants on the utility ones. The results of simulations are additionally processed using the concept of thermo-ecological cost to compare the "operational" impact of wind farms on the power system with their "investment" environmental burden. A conclusion is that current share of wind energy at the level of 10% is enough to have an adverse effect on the coal power plants, but depending on the structure of the power system it may actually increase its overall efficiency. • Introduction of wind power to the grid disrupts the operation of other power plants. • Average efficiency of individual utility power plants decreases. • The number of start-up/shut-down procedures greatly increases. • Depending on the structure of the system, overall efficiency may actually increase. • Thermo-ecological cost of compensation for wind energy is non-negligible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of the paper is the economic analysis and the assessment of the payback time of the heat pump cooperating with a photovoltaic installation in one of the single-family houses in Poland. The inhabitants consumed 11633 kWh of energy during the year. The heat pump consumed 64.23% of total energy used by inhabitants. The photovoltaic panels generated the electricity of 7728.9 kWh. Profitability of the investment was demonstrated based on analysis of its expenditure and operating costs. The payback time of a heat pump including various financing sources, such as: 100% of one's own contribution, loan for the installation of device using renewable energy sources, the subsidy "My Electricity" and the thermo-modernization allowance was analyzed. The analysis showed that the shortest payback time for this investment using "One's own contribution + subsidy My Electricity + thermo modernization relief" is 11 years and 6 months. • The inhabitants consumed 11633 kWh of energy during the year. • The photovoltaic panels generated the electricity of 7728.9 kWh. • The heat pump consumed 64.2% of total energy using by inhabitants. • The shortest playback time for the considered investment is 11 years and 6 months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper deals with issues related to activities undertaken by local government. The article focuses on the identification and assessment of the significance of local government's different bottom-up initiatives that support development of local entrepreneurship. The article also indirectly discusses the importance of activities referring to energy efficiency. Through the digitization process and by using digital tools, LGs realize projects, improve local actors' awareness, and finally achieve new challenges such as a higher proportion of gross final energy consumption being from renewable sources. The aim of the paper is to present the relationship between the LGs' entrepreneurial activities, which we call bottom-up initiatives, and the local entrepreneurship level, understood as the number of entrepreneurs active on the territory of a LG. This paper presents the results of research carried out on the bottom-up initiatives undertaken by Polish local governments to support entrepreneurship. The research was based on survey and statistical tools and stepwise regression analysis. In the paper, bottom-up initiatives undertaken by local governments (such as organizing events at the national or regional scale that enable networking among entrepreneurs or establishing departments for supporting local entrepreneurship that offer cooperation with local entrepreneurs) were found to influence the number of entrepreneurs active in local government territories. The paper concludes that local governments and their bottom-up activities are an important factor influencing local entrepreneurship development. The presented research results have implications for policy makers and may be useful for local governments in Poland and in other countries in the context of supporting entrepreneurship by undertaking bottom-up initiatives at the local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides the analysis of fuel and energy transition in households sector and its sustainable development in the period 2004–2019. The main purpose of the paper is to determine the development trends in the use of renewable energy sources (RES) in the EU countries household sector in 2004–2019, to recognize the state of development and functioning of the studied area as well as to indicate their successes and shortcomings in observed reality. The article employs the results of Energy balance sheets from Eurostat. The research entity were households from 28 European Union countries, with particular emphasis on households from Poland and selected neighboring countries. The research subjects there were different sources of renewable energy used by households, i.e., solar thermal system, geothermal technologies, primary solid biofuels, charcoal, biogases, blended biogasoline, blended biodiesels, ambient heat (heat pumps). To achieve the research objective a number of statistical measures ands methods, including cluster analysis and linear trend indicator applied. In the analyzed 16 years, an absolute and relative increase in the use of RES in the household sector was noticed. Taking into account the specificity of using RES in households, 6 clusters of countries were distinguished. In Poland, it was noted that there was a significant increase in the use of RES in households, with stagnation in the use of non-renewable energy sources, such as, for example, hard coal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present the state of development of renewable energy sources (RES) in Poland in accordance with the obligations of European Union energy policy. The EU Member States are obliged to adopt different support mechanisms for the development of renewable energy sources, and in consequence to achieve their Directive's targets. Poland, being a Member State of the EU since 2004, has accepted a target of a 15% share of energy generated from renewable energy sources in final energy consumption, including 19.3% from renewable electricity until 2020. Due to the difficulties with target achievement, the authors found it reasonable to analyze the challenge of RES development in Poland. The article presents energy policy in the EU, as well as the review of measures implemented for renewable energy development. The current state of and perspectives on using renewable energy sources in Poland and in the EU are also depicted. In the article, the authors analyze the relation between reference prices at dedicated RES auctions in Poland and the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). The paper also provides a description of the renewable energy sources' development in three areas: electricity, heat and transport biofuels. Its main content, though, refers to the generation of electricity from renewable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the analysis of an energy management system (EMS) implemented to fulfill the requirements of a microgrid (MG) power supply owned by a small industrial company and connected to the rural power system. The main goal of this system is to ensure connection with the existing rural power system in terms of energy exchange, as well as to perform islanding mode operation of the microgrid based on the energy demand of the company. Power generated in the implemented microgrid is based on a hybrid system supported by renewable energy sources and an energy storage system. The aim of the developed energy management system implemented in this MG power system is to enable the microgrid to operate according to scheduled diagrams related to different load events. The presented investigation, analysis, and assessment of the implemented energy management system are based on the on-site measurements and observations of the long-term operation of the microgrid concerning the hybrid renewable energy-based generation system and the company energy demand, which is useful from perspective of the predicted deficiency of electrical energy in Poland, both for customers and transmission system operators. Furthermore, the observed drawbacks and failures of the implemented EMS and the MG are pointed out and discussed to overcome and minimize these disadvantages, and to improve the operational reliability of the whole system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous analyses of the PV market (and the impact of the pandemic on it) have focused on the market as a whole. The literature does not contain analyses of selected services sectors (e.g., catering, hotel services) in terms of the use of photovoltaics. There are no studies that would show in which segments the demand profile for electricity most closely matches the production from photovoltaic installations (not to mention the impact of the pandemic). The authors analyzed selected service sectors (catering and hotel) in terms of the use of photovoltaics before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The paper proposes a comparative methodology for the use of photovoltaics for self-consumption, including statistical analyses and calculations of the self-consumption index for representatives of various selected services sectors. The highest value of the self-consumption ratio at the level of 52% was shown for cafes and restaurants (during the pandemic). Surprisingly, in the pandemic, the self-consumption rate increased for restaurants and cafes for the same size of installations (compared to pre-pandemic times). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we aim to identify the determinants that profoundly impact renewable energy sources development in Poland. To this end, the authors have conducted qualitative and quantitative analyses of Poland's renewable energy sector. In this paper, we demonstrate an original approach considering the different development levels of the given sector across provinces (voivodeships). It uses panel data from the Local Data Bank of the Statistics Poland on electricity production from renewable energy sources in individual voivodeships in Poland from 2005 through 2019. The study confronts the results of previous studies and sheds light on the situation in Poland—specifically, upon the changes that have happened over the ten years (2010–2019). The qualitative analysis shows a negative correlation between energy consumption and the share of renewable energy sources in total energy production. Evidence shows that favorable changes are underway in the energy production structure: RES share is growing and by degrees satisfying energy demand, and there is growing potential of energy entities in Poland. Furthermore, the analysis shows that R&D and total expenditures on environmental protection and water management investments do not significantly affect the development of RES. A dynamic panel data model has been used to analyze the group and time effects on the dependent variable. The findings confirm the existence of the persistency effect and indicate positive effects of total installed electric capacity (IEC) and household electricity consumption (HEC). Nonhousehold electricity consumption (NHEC) has a negative effect on the endogenous variable, i.e., the renewable energy sources share in the gross final energy consumption (RESS). The research results may be applicable as recommendations for energy efficiency policy development based on renewable energy sources depending on the RES development level in the regions of Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various environmental policy instruments supporting the development of renewable energy are used on an increasing scale as part of the policy of mitigating climate change and more. In our paper, we examine the influence of environmental policy stringency on renewable energy production in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia for the period 1993–2012 after controlling for gross domestic product per capita growth, CO2 emissions per capita and income inequality. We use the Panel Pooled Mean Group Autoregressive Distributive Lag model to analyze the long-run and the short-run relationship between restrictiveness of environmental policy and renewable energy generation. The results reveal that, in the long run, a more stringent environmental policy has a positive impact both on the increase in the absolute volume of renewable energy production, as well as on the replacement of energy from fossil sources. Our main findings indicate that renewable energy production is positively influenced not only by the stringency of instruments aimed directly at the development of this energy sector, but also by the stringency of instruments with other environmental goals and by the overall level of restrictiveness of the environmental policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy education of the younger generation, who are the future decision makers, investors, consumers, scientists, or skilled labor force in new energy technologies, is crucial for the future of Europe and the world. However, beyond the long-term goals of energy education policies, the short-term effects on energy conservation and the promotion of renewable energy sources are equally as important. The main purpose of the paper is to identify and analyze the behavior of students (who study the issues related to energy saving and RES), in terms of energy conservation. The conducted analysis focused on examining and comparing the scope of responses of the surveyed students in individual countries, especially in the Czech Republic, Poland, and Ukraine. The survey was carried out using the computer-assisted web interview (CAWI). Descriptive and graphical methods were used to present the results. Statistical analysis of the collected data included basic measures of descriptive statistics and the chi-square test. The main results of the study are as follows: Almost 60% of the surveyed students follow the principles of energy conservation; however increased educational activities on eco-energy behaviors is recommended. The share of RES in the heating systems of the studied residential buildings is 9%, on average, with the highest percentage of houses in Poland (14%) and the lowest in Ukraine (only 2.6%). When compared with literature reports, the collect data show that educational activities can be as effective as a tool in implementing RES and pro-environmental behaviors as the government's environmental policy and household subsidies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrification of powertrain systems offers numerous advantages in the global trend in vehicular applications. A wide range of energy sources and zero-emission propulsion in the tank to wheel significantly add to electric vehicles' (EV) attractiveness. This paper presents analyses of the energy balance between micro-photovoltaic (PV) installation and small electric vehicle in real conditions. It is based on monitoring PV panel's energy production and car electricity consumption. The methodology included energy data from real household PV installation (the most common renewable energy source in Poland), electric vehicle energy consumption during real driving conditions, and drivetrain operating parameters, all collected over a period of one year by indirect measuring. A correlation between energy produced by the micro-PV installation and small electric car energy consumption was described. In the Winter, small electric car energy consumption amounted to 14.9 kWh per 100 km and was 14% greater than summer, based on test requirements of real driving conditions. The 4.48 kW PV installation located in Poznań produced 4101 kWh energy in 258 days. The calculation indicated 1406 kWh energy was available for EV charging after household electricity consumption subtraction. The zero-emission daily distance analysis was done by the simplified method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An increase in energy demand that is caused by fast economic development, a limited and constantly decreasing supply of traditional energy sources, as well as excessive environmental pollution that is caused by an increasing concentration of dust and gases in the atmosphere constitute the main factors that contribute to the ever-increasing interest in renewable sources of energy. The most important and promising renewable source of energy is thought to be solar energy. The aim of the paper is to assess the macroeconomic investment efficiency of photovoltaic installations in order to meet the demand for electric energy in single-family homes in Polish conditions. The conducted analysis comprises market characteristics and legal regulations concerning the sale of electric energy in Poland. Calculations were made for 320 variants that differed with regard to investment location, building orientation, and roof inclination. The results indicate that the most beneficial region for photovoltaic micro-installations, from a social perspective, is the south-east of and central Poland. The highest values of economic efficiency were achieved in the case of a southern roof inclination as well as a south-eastern and south-western building orientation. No big differences were observed in the economic investment efficiency for the panel inclinations. The calculated Discounted Payback Period, depending on the calculation method, equals 5.4 to 10 years. The results of the study confirm that the implemented support instruments for investments in photovoltaic installations producing energy for single-family house demand is economically viable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many regions in Poland face the problem of air pollution. These regions include, though are not exclusive, to health resorts, an important element of the healthcare industry. Poor air quality is mainly associated with the domestic sector, which is dominated by individual solid fuel and coal boilers. One option for reducing emissions is to use alternative energy sources for heating purposes. Therefore, the paper presents an analysis into the possibility of using low enthalpy (low temperature) geothermal energy in health resort areas. The main purpose of the article is to estimate the potential of soil and water as the lower source for a heat pump. The article presents analyses of geological and hydrogeological conditions based on which the thermal parameters of the rock mass were determined, which were thermal conductivity and unit heat output for 1800 operating hours per year. The calculated values were used to perform a spatial analysis of the data and create maps of the average thermal conductivity for horizontal ground heat exchangers (HGHE) to a depth of 2 and 10 m and vertical ground heat exchangers (VGHE) in depth ranges up to 30, 60, and 90 m. The heating power of the intakes, located in the research area, were estimated using empirical formulas. In addition, a detailed analysis of the physicochemical parameters of groundwater in terms of the requirements indicated by four heat pump manufacturers is presented. The results of the presented research makes it possible to assess the potential of low-temperature geothermal energy and to characterize the suitability of the selected location for the use of HGHE, VGHE, and wells. As a result, the discussed area was found to have a high potential for the use of ground source heat pumps and a moderate potential for the use of low-temperature systems based on groundwater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing energy consumption is a way to make the energy sector less invasive for the natural environment. Energy policy is essential to motivate consumers to decrease electricity consumption and should take into account the specificity of each sector (industry, households, transport). The energy policy of the member states of the European Union should consider the factors of increased demand for electricity and support solutions such as smart metering and prosumer energy. This paper provides an overview of the pro-efficiency policy of households in Poland, affecting the residential sector, and assesses the regulations implemented so far. The evaluation of the policy uses an econometric approach (congruent modelling). The impact of energy policy was determined by giving weights to individual regulations taking into account their variability in time. The created models showed a significant impact of the introduced regulations on the reduction of energy consumption and confirmed their changeable influence over time. Their time-limited impact on reducing energy consumption forces taking further actions motivating consumers to electricity saving. The review of Polish energy regulations revealed a lack of sufficient provision in the field of developing smart technology limited use of energy policy tools such as informative billing and information campaigns. • Assessing policy impact needs an extensive review of different kind of sources. • In Poland, policy-making instruments need improvement in the context of households. • Lack of legislative solutions on smart metering in Poland may slow down smart cities development. • Models of energy use in Poland were created using econometric approach (congruent modelling) to test the policy impact. • New regulations are needed to maintain the reduction in energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Innovations in technical, financial, and social areas are crucial prerequisites for an effective and sustainable energy transition. In this context, the construction of a new energy structure and the motivation of the consumer towards a change in their consumption behaviours to balance demand with a volatile energy supply are important issues. At the same time, Consumer Stock Ownership Plans (CSOPs) in renewable energies sources (RESs) have proven to be an essential cornerstone in the overall success of energy transition. Indeed, when consumers acquire ownership in RES, they become prosumers, participating in the phase of production and distribution of energy. Prosumers provide benefits by (1) generating a part of the energy they consume, (2) reducing their overall expenditure for energy, and (3) receiving a second source of income from the sale of excess production. Supporting Consumer Co-Ownership in Renewable Energies (SCORE) is an ongoing Horizon 2020 project with the aim of overcoming the usage of energy from fossil sources in favour of RES, promoting the creation of energy communities (EC) and facilitating co-ownership of renewable energies (RE) for consumers. SCORE hereby particularly emphasises the inclusion of women, low-income households, and vulnerable groups affected by fuel poverty that are as a rule excluded from RE investments. In this framework, the main goal of the present study is to illustrate the general procedure and process of EC creation. In particular, this paper focuses on the description of the methodological approach in implementing the CSOP model which consists of three main phases: the identification and description of selected buildings (preparation phase), the preliminary and feasibility analysis phase, and finally the phase of target group involvement. SCORE first started in three pilot regions in Italy, Czech Republic, and Poland, and later, with the aim of extending the methodology, in various other cities across Europe. In this study, Italian pilot study sites were chosen as a case study to develop and test the methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]