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Wellington city is characterised by steep hilly terrain, and as such several tunnels have been constructed since the beginning of the last century to provide critical transport access in the city. These tunnels are still used today as part of the city’s transport routes, while also being an integral part of the city’s history and heritage. Wellington is among the most seismically active areas in New Zealand. Three major active faults located within the Wellington Region and the proximity to the subduction zone are the main contributors to the high seismicity. The aging tunnels were designed and constructed prior to the advent of earthquake design standards and are subject to deterioration. Hence, they require maintenance and strengthening to ensure operational integrity and resilience to earthquake and other hazard events. Authorities have been supported by the authors in managing the risk through identifying key vulnerabilities, and prioritisation and implementation of strengthening measures. Best practice investigation and strengthening techniques have been applied through the process to ensure resilience and cost effectiveness. The paper presents case histories that highlight the value of investigations and assessment in understanding the risks, and novel strengthening measures developed to enhance resilience while preserving the heritage of the tunnels. Case histories include the seismic strengthening of the Hataitai Bus Tunnel, the Northland and Seatoun road tunnels and the investigation and assessment of the iconic Wellington Cable Car tunnels.

Started in 2014, the works on tramway Line D, awarded to Compagnie des Transports Strasbourgeois (CTS) by Strasbourg Eurometropole (EMS), are intended to extend the Strasbourg transport network into Germany and facilitate the development of cross-border links. Crossing the Rhine, this extension requires the construction of an iconic tied-arch bridge. The key design criteria and constructions are reviewed and discussed in this report.

In the face of climate change, the assessment of land transport infrastructure exposure towards adverse climate events is of major importance for Europe's economic prosperity and social wellbeing. In this study, a climate index estimating rainfall patterns which trigger landslides in central Europe is analysed until the end of this century and compared to present-day conditions. The analysis of the potential future development of landslide risk is based on an ensemble of dynamically downscaled climate projections which are driven by the SRES A1B socio-economic scenario. Resulting regional-scale climate change projections across central Europe are concatenated with Europe's road and railway network. Results indicate overall increases of landslide occurrence. While flat terrain at low altitudes exhibits an increase of about 1 more potentially landslide-inducing rainfall period per year until the end of this century, higher elevated regions are more affected and show increases of up to 14 additional periods. This general spatial distribution emerges in the near future (2021–2050) but becomes more pronounced in the remote future (2071–2100). Since largest increases are to be found in Alsace, potential impacts of an increasing amount of landslides are discussed using the example of a case study covering the Black Forest mountain range in Baden-Württemberg by further enriching the climate information with additional geodata. The findings derived are suitable to support political decision makers and European authorities in transport, freight and logistics by offering detailed information on which parts of Europe's ground transport network are at particularly high risk concerning landslide activity.

This article presents the multilayered complex network formulation for three different supply chain network archetypes on an urban road grid and describes how 500 instances were randomly generated for each archetype. Both the supply chain network layer and the urban road network layer are directed unweighted networks. The shortest path set is calculated for each of the 1 500 experimental instances. The datasets are used to empirically explore the impact that the supply chain's dependence on the transport network has on its vulnerability in Viljoen and Joubert (2017) [1]. The datasets are publicly available on Mendeley (Joubert and Viljoen, 2017) [2]. Keywords: Multilayered complex networks, Supply chain vulnerability, Urban road networks

This paper examines the development of a road network through time to consider its relationship to processes of urbanisation in Roman and early medieval England. Using a popular network measure called PageRank, we classify the importance of nodes in the transport network of roads and navigable waterways to assess the relative location of urban places. Applying this measure we show that there is a strong correlation between the status of towns in both Roman and medieval periods and their proximity to transport nodes with high values of PageRank. Comparison between two temporally distinct networks—Early Roman, and that recorded in the Domesday survey of 1086 CE—allows for a discussion about the determinants of urban growth at different times. The applicability of PageRank to other forms of network analysis in archaeology is offered in conclusion.

This paper discusses key issues in the railway corridor development in the context of the Trans- European Transport Network (TEN-T). While recent European policies support an increase in the capacity of freight and high-speed train (HST) services, many parts of the European railway networks have been facing difficulties in coordinating the increasing number of passenger services (long-distance and regional) and freight services, especially those running through high-density urban areas. Overcoming the interoperability in the cross-border context and the shortage of financial resources are some of the other issues to be tackled. Previous research predominantly focused on examining HST operation and rail freight traffic within a national context. Further research is therefore required to identify the complexity of upgrading mixed-use railway networks to meet new standards of both quality and flexibility of integrated rail service development in a trans-national spatial context. This paper examines prospects and obstacles to developing mixed-use railway networks in the trans-European platform with reference to existing literature and an EU INTERREG project, CODE 24 which is the main north-south railway axis connecting the ports of Rotterdam and Genoa through six European countries.

Active modes of transport (i.e. walking and cycling) are being encouraged in many countries. Singapore is advocating strong efforts to attract more users to travel by walking and cycling and thereby achieve ‘car-lite’ travel. To attract users towards a certain transport alternative, it is important to understand their current perceptions and attitudes towards it and accordingly develop a suitable transport network and related schemes. This paper employs two qualitative techniques, focus group sessions and one-to-one interviews, to gain a deeper understanding of adults and elders perceived advantages, disadvantages, concerns and opportunities to promote walking and cycling in Singapore. It was found that users are comfortable with the walking infrastructure, but they expressed that more can be done to improve the cycling infrastructure including provision of wider paths and parking facilities. Overall, more positive attitudes were registered towards cycling than walking. Work incentives such as flexible working hours are preferred by users to promote walking and cycling. Education to all road users (pedestrians, cyclists, and motorists) was mentioned as a key initiative to increase safety and effective sharing of facilities. MOE (Min. of Education, S’pore) Accepted version

This paper proposes a simultaneous route and departure time choice (SRDTC) problem with fixed demand in a degradable transport network. In this network, travelers face with stochastic travel times....

Rapid urbanisation brings unwelcome negative impacts, and places excessive pressure on infra-structure development and maintenance. In partic-ular, transport networks become congested with negative impacts on energy logistics. The liquid fuel situation of South Africa and Gauteng is briefly examined. The paper considers the impact of con-strained oil supply, and supply infrastructure, on transport. The author further suggests that the authorities in Gauteng should critically examine an ultra light rail option in order to reduce reliance on imported oil, while helping reduce road congestion. A more energy efficient transport network for the province, able to meet the transport needs of pas-sengers and business, will help decrease environ-mentally damaging emissions.

Within the context of the energy crisis in the Western Cape, the Provincial Government and Eskom (the South African power utility) embarked on a retrofit campaign to install 5 million compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in a desperate attempt to decrease the generation deficit. There is also increased pressure for investments in new generation capacity, with all options including the Pebble Bed Modular reactor (PBMR), the Open Cycle Gas Turbines (OCGT) as well as renewable resource technologies being pro-posed. Despite all these concerted efforts it is wide-ly regarded that demand-side technologies, with education programs, subsidies and research fund-ing, have greater scope for achieving success as they tackle the root cause rather than the symptom.The light emitting diode (LED) is a new energy efficient option in the lighting sector that has in recent times been deployed extensively by the City of Cape Town’s Transport Network Operations Department. The technology promises superior attributes that include a longer lifespan and higher energy conversion efficiencies, when compared to the traditional incandescents and fluorescents. This paper details the achievements of the LED in its brief history in the local traffic and signals industry as well as its projected impact on the city traffic light department’s future energy and mainte-nance budget. It is then proposed that these mono-chromatic signal LEDs, which is fast evolving into a white LED, holds the best promise in Cape Town as well as the Western Cape’s energy future if adopted for general lighting in the domestic, commercial and industrial market.

As an essential infrastructure tunnels play an important role in transport network. The functionality of this infrastructure depends on its structural and durability performance. In the climate of an increasing scarcity of resources, infrastructure maintenance is becoming increasingly important. This paper aims to develop a maintenance strategy for tunnels, which determines when, where and what to maintain, to ensure the safe and serviceable operation of tunnel structure with the intention to minimise the total risk. Application of the proposal is presented in a numerical example of a practical case study. It was found that an optimum solution, which can predict when, where and what to maintain for tunnel structure to ensure its safe and serviceable operation during its lifespan, exists. The paper concludes that the proposed framework can equip tunnel operators and asset managers with a tool in developing a risk cost optimised maintenance strategy for tunnels under their management.

Faced with the challenge of providing adequate transport services with limited resources, cities have, for several decades, been investing in Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). ITS utilize Information and Communications Technology (ICT) to make more efficient use of existing transport infrastructure with the aim of improving transport services and reducing congestion, accidents, and air pollution. In the past two decades, with the rapid advancement of ICT and intensive advocacy from big technology vendors, the concept of ‘smart cities’ has gained great popularity and many cities have started to undertake a more holistic approach to improving urban services using technology in the name of smart city initiatives. Section two introduces these themes, which serve as the analytical framework to understand how smart mobility investments lead to energy savings. The comparison in the search for similarities among the case studies and interviews helped us develop a conceptual model, emphasizing cause and effect and presented in section three, of how ITS deployment and operation in the context of smart cities leads to energy saving benefits. This conceptual model is presented with detailed discussions of institutional, technological, and physical conditions at each step in the model. Section four focuses on energy savings with quantitative evidence of energy saving potential of ITS investments collected from literature and case studies. Section five links the results of this study to the Wuhan Integrated Transport Development Project and how the knowledge has been incorporated into project design. To further explore the energy efficiency potential of Wuhan and to mainstream ITS and smart transport solutions as a source of achieving energy efficiency using results of this study, a TRACE analysis was also completed as part of this research effort. This analysis focused on the passenger transport sector. Finally, policy recommendations on the major conditions under which ITS investments in the context of smart cities achieve energy savings are summarized in Section 6 with specific implications for cities in the developing countries.

The transport infrastructure sector is facing challenges related to the decarbonisation, financing and integrated developments, which need to be overcome so it can gain a competitive advantage among the strategic economic sectors. Known as a major pollutant, with 23.3 % of the total EU-28 GHG emissions in 2014, one of the transport policy objectives is to lower this percentage, by focusing on innovative solutions and modal shift (Eurostat, 2016). The White Paper (2011) promotes a sustainable development, aiming at a reduction by 60% by 2050 of the carbon emissions generated by the transport sector and at a modal shift from road to rail or waterborne transport for freight transport over 300 km with 30% by 2030, and more than 50% by 2050. The focus on an integrated development of the transport sector at the European level was reinforced with the adoption of the EU Regulation no. 1315/2013, marking the transition from a patchwork of different projects towards a vision for the achievement of an EU transport network. Moreover, another challenge is related to the scarce availability of the public money, making it necessary to attract private parties in the development of the transport infrastructure projects (The Investment Plan for Europe, 2014). Supporting the development of the intermodal transport is a way of surmounting the obstacles that this sector is confronting with, which is being implemented in Europe. The intermodal transport is introducing a paradigm shift, allowing the integration of the different transport modes together with their own advantages, as opposed to competing stand-alone modes and it can aid in the fight against climate change, scarce financial resources and congestion This article aims at determining the potential of Romania, as a member of European Union, to develop intermodal transport projects, to identify the funding sources, the obstacles and the solutions to promote the successful implementation of such projects.

The geographic location of the Russian Federation determines regional apartness of the Arctic and Far East territories which are mostly isolated. The necessity of development of the Russian North Polar regions calls for the development of transport infrastructure and specifies requirements to flight characteristics of regional airplanes, which requires new research and development solutions. Positioning the Arctic territory as an exclusive economic zone on the world political arena necessitates the development of the regional transport network including all-cargo and passenger services for sustainable development of the region. An up-to-date approach to aircraft design should be based on Arctic exploiation requirements, infrastructure-climate limitations and design methods that include methods of moment-inertia analysis, structural-parametric analysis of Arctic-based aircraft taking into account the choice of rational moment-inertia configuration. Synthesizing the limitations and required operation characteristics we designed an Arctic-based airplane that can perform transport operations in the Russian Arctic zone safely and successfully.

Hazardous materials transportation network optimization can help to decrease accident rates and improve transport efficiency. An iterative optimization model of the transport network is established which considers characteristics of both government and enterprises. The first aim of government is to minimize transport risk, while enterprises want transport cost to be the lowest possible, so the top-level objective of this model is to minimize transport network risk and the low-level objective is to minimize total cost. When demand is determined, the total cost obtained from low-level model is added to top-level as constraints to determine the optimal transport network. When demand changes, we introduce safety coefficient to solve this model. A small transport network is used to verify this model and algorithm, and the results show that the proposed methods are feasible and stable.

With detailed digital map of the transport network and even real-time traffic, today's navigation services provide good quality routes in the major route level. Once entering the last mile near the destination, they unfortunately can be ineffective and, instead, local drivers often have a better understanding of the routes there. With the deep penetration of 3G/4G mobile networks, drivers today are well connected anytime and anywhere; they can readily access information from the Internet and share information to the driver's community. This motivates our design of CrowdNavi, a complementary service to existing navigation systems, seeking to combat the last mile puzzle. CrowdNavi collects the crowdsourced driving information from users to identify their local driving patterns, and recommend the best local routes for users to reach their destinations. In this paper, we present the architectural design of CrowdNavi and identifies the unique challenges therein, particularly on identifying the last segment in a route from the crowdsourced driving information and navigate drivers through the last segment. We offer a complete set of algorithms to identify the last segment from the drivers’ trajectories, scoring the landmark, and locating best routes with user preferences. We then present effective navigation algorithm to locate the best route along the landmarks for the last segment. We further realize the potential risks of attacks in crowdsourced systems and develop a multisensor cross-validation method against them. We have implemented the CrowdNavi app on Android mobile OS, and have examined its performance under various circumstances. The experimental results demonstrate its superiority in navigating drivers in the last segment toward the destination.

In many cities, different developments in economic, social, and physical environment significantly influence the transportation demand. When the demand could not be matched by capacity expa...

We consider Scottish landscape gardener J.C. Loudon’s already well-documented 1829 plan for a system of successive green belts around London. Our perspective will be that of transport planning, given his recommendations on street layout and public transport provision. Our contention is that Loudon’s design for the Metropolis would have been theoretically inoperative if it had not been for its transport network. Beside other forward-thinking aspects already demonstrated by researchers, Loudon’s plan is remarkable for setting out a design for an integrated Metropolis based on road planning and the then barely nascent technology of railways.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) will be a critical component of a portfolio of low-carbon energy technologies required to combat climate change ( IEA-GHG, 2013 ). As such, an extensive transportation infrastructure will be required to transport captured CO2 from different sources to the available sinks. Several studies in the literature suggest that shared oversized pipeline networks may be the most efficient long term option compared to single source to sink pipelines, based on increased CCS deployment over the years and therefore increased CO2 flowrate to the transport network. However, what is neglected in this vision is that the deployment of intermittent renewable energy tends to displace thermal power generation. This directly reduces the amount of fossil fuel burned, CO2 produced, captured and transported through the network. This paper presents an optimisation methodology to “right-size” CO2 transport infrastructure, explicitly accounting for the transient flow of CO2 arising from the co-deployment of intermittent renewable energy generators. By application of this methodology, we demonstrate that capital cost reductions of up to 28% are possible relative to a business-as-usual design case.

The modern state of modeling of intercity passenger transportation systems is considered. It is determined that the search for various options for technologies of interaction between the society and the transport industry is constantly at the stage of searching for the best possible methods of transportation organization. To assess the proposed scientific approaches, full-scale measurements are carried out on the route flows of passengers on sections of route routes. The approach to modeling intercity passenger route transportation systems is considered as original in the article, taking into account economic, social and organizational components. These components determine the overall efficiency of the transport process. Together with this, the above approach can be improved. To do this, it is desirable to consider in more detail individual subsystems by mode of transport and separately allocate night and day transportation. Practitioners note that with the same parameters of the trip, people feel differently the consequences of a day and night trip. This can lead to different requirements for the transport network as a whole. But the above algorithm allows to take this into account. The means for assessing the performance parameters of the system of routes for passenger transportation systems are explored. The sequence of formation of the transportation system of intercity passenger transport is proposed, which relies on the achievements of science and practice and takes into account the patterns of distribution of transport correspondence between cities from the transport network. The attraction functions between cities are complemented in accordance with the number of inhabitants and purchasing power. New information has been obtained on the modeling of transport route systems for transportation of passengers between cities within the investigated system. This is more advantageous in comparison with analogues due to the consideration of ensuring the social and economic characteristics of the population, the possibility of increasing productivity by optimizing the use of the route network and meeting the economic interests of the transport industry. This is more advantageous in comparison with the analogues due to ensuring the registration of social and economic characteristics of the population of Ukraine, a possible increase in productivity by optimizing the use of the route network, satisfaction of economic interests of the transport industry.

The article presents a heuristic optimization approach to select a suitable transport connection in the framework of a city public transport. This methodology was applied on a part of the public transport in Košice, because it is the second largest city in the Slovak Republic and its network of the public transport creates a complex transport system, which consists of three different transport modes, namely from the bus transport, tram transport and trolley-bus transport. This solution focused on examining the individual transport services and their interconnection in relevant interchange points.

Transport network planning determines the form of transport networks and the characteristics of the network elements. A common concept in road network planning is the structuring of roads depending on the function of the road. In network planning transport planners therefore determine the form of a network not only by adding new network elements but mainly by assigning a function to a road which then influences the road design. The paper presents an approach for a functional structuring of road networks as it is described in the German Guideline for Integrated Network Planning. It describes the general methodology of the approach and shows some examples applying the methodology.

Transportation is one of the essential services in cities that contribute to the quality of life. As a result, efficient methods for transport planning have become increasingly important. Decision makers have considered collaborative strategies to reduce the overall cost of the supply process and to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of urban logistics systems. This paper assesses the implementation of an electric fleet of vehicles in collaborative urban distribution of goods, in order to reduce environmental impacts while maintaining a level of service. An approach using mathematical modeling with multiple objectives, for tactical and operational decision-making, is proposed to explore the relationship between the delivery cost and the sustainability impact. This approach has been validated using real-data taken from the city of Bogota, Colombia. Similarly, theoretical experiments in other countries have been performed to analyse the impact of the use of electric vehicles in the configuration of the transport network.

This paper presents a comprehensive framework for risk assessment and micro simulation modelling to assess traffic impacts during re-decking of a major suspension bridge identified as Critical Infrastructure (CI) in Halifax, Canada. The bridge is being replaced while maintaining traffic during day time. As re-decking is relatively a rare and unknown construction event for a Cable Bridge, unexpected risk event and uncertainty would be associated with complex engineering manoeuvring during the re-decking of the bridge. Therefore, this study proposes a fuzzy logic approach to estimate the construction related bridge opening delay, and subsequently develops a micro simulation-based traffic network model to assess the traffic impacts on transport network. Weather data, traffic volume and signal data obtained from multiple data sources have been used during the risk assessment and micro simulation modelling. The results suggest that the likelihood of bridge opening delay could range from 18%-30% for an hour period to 40% for 3 hour period depending on the level of consequence on any day in December. The average potential delay is obtained as 22 minutes, 1.5 hours, and 2.6 hours for low consequence, medium consequence, and high consequence respectively. Based on the delay analysis, this study evaluates three alternative bridge opening delay scenarios. It is observed that the increment in number of operating vehicles becomes steady at 30% suggesting the network has reached its capacity. The results also reveals that any delay over 2 hours in bridge opening would add a slight change to the impacts on the network. This study will help policy-makers to develop risk mitigation plans and contingencies to ensure better management of traffic during 18 months long re-decking of this critical infrastructure.

Route planning in urban public transport systems constitutes a common decision problem faced by travelers. Therefore, building Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) that provide passengers with pre-trip information on navigating through the network has become a certain need. Since passengers do not only seek a short-time travel, but they endeavor to optimize other criteria such as cost and effort, an efficient routing system should incorporate a multiobjective analysis for both routes and transport modes. We propose in this paper a new formulation that adequately allows representing a public transit network, as well as, yielding correct results when applying routing algorithms. Based on this formulation, we develop a multicriteria routing algorithm to determine the entire set of nondominated solutions to solve an itinerary planning problem. We introduce also several enhancement strategies to accelerate the algorithm's search process. As transportation modes, we focus on Railway, bus, tram and pedestrian. As optimization criteria, we use travel time, number of transfers and the total walking time. Experimental results have been assessed by solving real life itinerary problems defined on the transport network of the city of Paris and its suburbs. Results indicate that test problems were solved within reasonable amount of time and the new approach is efficient enough to be integrated within a real world journey-planning system.

Many studies have been done to model and design park and ride scheme, since park and ride has long been considered as a strategy to alleviate traffic congestion and reduce emission. However, due to the difficulty in modelling an urban transport network system, research on park and ride still needs to overcome some limitations. This paper proposes a robust model by combining the driver's mode choice and route choice, which are based on a combined cross nest logit (CNL) and user equilibrium (UE) model. Mathematical programming and varitional inequality are used to solve a network optimization. The main contributions of this paper are: (1)considering travel time uncertainty on roads which can affect both modal split and route choice. (2)taking multi-class demands into consideration because different people have different requirements for the travel time and level of service. In other words, mean-excess travel time (METT) model are proposed in this paper to depict uncertainty environment. Heterogeneity is considered by commuters' variations of METT parameter which depends on travelers' trip characteristic and income level.

Decisions concerning development of the transport system in district, city or region should be undertaken after careful analysis. One of the methods to carry it out is utilization of a computerized traffic model which is prepared in specialized software − e.g. in the VISUM. Traffic model allows to predict the effects of proposed changes in configuration of the transport network, in traffic restrictions or in effects of changes in anticipated spatial development of the area. The models can be created for different applications − e.g. only for research the modal split in passenger traffic with taking into account all the possible ways of movement, for research the distribution of selected types of transport means in transport network, or for research investment needs in transport infrastructure development. In each of these cases there is a need to develop a model of the transport network as well as demand model. The article presents an approach to modeling cycling in cities using the PTV VISUM. Were presented solutions for the development of the network model, demand model (including travel generation and spatial travel distribution), model of traffic distribution on the network, as well as in the field of verification, validation and calibration. In addition, it describes the use of described approach to develop a cycling model for Warsaw. This model is one of the elements of the Transportation Model of Warsaw Agglomeration 2016 which is result of work carried out by the consortium: PBS, Cracow University of Technology and Warsaw University of Technology. Model developed as part of this project is a tool for supporting planning of cycling in Warsaw. Described approach can be used to develop a model of cycling for any area (of course in case of having relevant data).

A graph, comprising a set of nodes connected by edges, is one of the simplest yet remarkably useful mathematical structures for the analysis of real-world complex systems. Network theory, being an application-based extension of graph theory, has been applied to a wide variety of real-world systems involving complex interconnection of subsystems. The application of network theory has permitted in-depth understanding of connectivity, topologies, and operations of many practical networked systems as well as the roles that various parameters play in determining the performance of such systems. In the field of transportation networks, however, the use of graph theory has been relatively much less explored, and this motivates us to bring together the recent development in the field of public transport analysis from a graph theoretic perspective. In this paper, we focus on ground transportation, and in particular the bus transport network (BTN) and metro transport network (MTN), since the two types of networks are widely used by the public and their performances have significant impact to people's life. In the course of our analysis, various network parameters are introduced to probe into the impact of topologies and their relative merits and demerits in transportation. The various local and global properties evaluated as part of the topological analysis provide a common platform to comprehend and decipher the inherent network features that are partly encoded in their topological properties. Overall, this paper gives a detailed exposition of recent development in the use of graph theory in public transport network analysis, and summarizes the key results that offer important insights for government agencies and public transport system operators to plan, design, and optimize future public transport networks in order to achieve more efficient and robust services.

From the moment of the creation of the first power station with a small DC network by Thomas Edison exactly in 1879, to date with the achievement of millions of kilometres of network and power plants in 2018, the electrical network is constantly evolving to meet the growing needs for electricity. With this in context, the experience of Algeria is part of the investment of electrical systems, whose length of the transport network passes between 2005 to 2015 from 16778km to 27284km. Our study focuses on the interest of the investments of power systems (lines, power plants and transformers substations) in the southwest region of Algeria.

Transport is a complex system, integral to national and international structure and without which society cannot function. At the same time, transport is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions. In the UK a step change is required in the transport sector to achieve the legally binding reduction targets of the Climate Change Act 2008. Following the UK government’s 2013 review of carbon dioxide emissions from infrastructure, this paper looks at the country’s present and projected transport emissions in the context of the transport status quo and plans for growth. It argues there is an urgent need to rebalance the transport modal mix, with all modes integrated into a seamless transport system with smart interfacing between them. Drivers for behavioural change are also essential.

Thermal storage is of extreme importance in modern district heating networks in order to increase the share of waste heat and heat produced through renewable sources and cogeneration. Nevertheless, installation of large storage volumes is not always feasible, especially in dense urban areas. A possible option consists in virtual storage, which is obtained through variation of the thermal request profiles of some of the connected buildings with the goal of producing an effect similar to that obtained using storage. To perform such approach there are three crucial elements: 1) an advanced ICT solution able provide real time information about the thermal request of the buildings and the thermodynamic conditions at the thermal substations; 2) a detailed thermo fluid-dynamic model of the district heating network able to simulate the temperature evolution along the network as the function of time; 3) a compact model of the buildings in the district able to check the acceptability of the internal temperatures following the modified strategies. The model produces changes in the start-up time of the buildings connected with the network as well as possible pauses during the day. These changes in the request profiles usually involve a slightly larger heat load. Nevertheless, peak shaving is accompanied by a reduction in heat generation of boilers and an increase in the thermal production of efficient systems, such as cogeneration units. This results in a significant reduction in the primary energy consumption. An application to the Turin district heating network, which is the largest network in Italy, is presented. In particular, a subnetwork connecting the main transport network to about 100 buildings located in the central area of the town is considered. The analysis if performed in selected days where the optimization was conducted the day before on the basis of weather forecasts and then applied to the network. Despite the changes in the request profiles could be applied only to a limited number of buildings, the analysis show that the peak request can be reduced. Simulations performed considering the application of changes to a larger number of buildings show that reduction in the primary energy consumptions of the order of 5% can be obtained.

The physical Internet (PI) is a conceptual, innovative, and contemporary modular distribution logistics system that has garnered the interest of both researchers and practitioners as an alternative to conventional logistics. It aims to be more environmentally friendly, more socially responsible, and also more profitable. The key concept behind the PI logistics system is the routing of highly modular containers through transit centers (called PI hubs) to obtain a very efficient transport network that exploits consolidation opportunities. A systems model of the traditional and PI networks is developed as an aggregation of optimal point-to-point dispatch models between pairs of cities. This is then used to characterize the behavior of the traditional and PI logistics systems for several different logistics system key performance indicators. Based on the modeling assumptions in this paper, it is concluded that the benefits of the PI are in reducing the inventory cost and the total logistics system cost. However, a fewer truck trips are required in the traditional system, which also has a lower total order delivery time. While the transportation cost in the PI and traditional systems are comparable, the total cost of the PI system is significantly lower.

Availability and reliability of mail distribution services depends primarily on a network of postal operators. Choosing the appropriate layout of a network is key to maintaining quality while generating the lowest possible costs. This article focuses on creation of a postal network, based on an allocation model of an uncapacitated fixed-charge facility that considers road networks in the Slovak republic. A basic analysis of infrastructure is followed by incorporating service demands, and building and transport costs, in the chosen allocation model. Both construction and subsequent improvement heuristic algorithms are used to determine the number and location of postal sorting centers. The results are compared to find the lowest cost-generating solution. Even the best solution from available methods could be deemed sub-optimal as one does not know how close or how far the solution is from optimal. By varying the input variables, supported by a thorough analysis and consideration of future development of the transport network, one can improve efficiency in postal network operations.

France has developed a high quality motorway system that has been rapidly rationalised and matured in the late 20th century yet has been founded on ancient, Roman infrastructures. The development of the motorway system is thus an iterative method associated with hierarchical ‘top-down’ processes taking into consideration factors such as population density, network demand, location of natural resources, civil engineering challenges and population growth. At the opposite extreme to this approach is the development of transport networks within simple biological systems which are typically decentralised, dynamic and emerge from simple, local and ‘bottom-up’ interactions. We examine the notion, and to what extent, that the structure of a complex motorway network could be predicted by the transport network of the single-celled slime mould Physarum polycephalum. This comparison is explored through its ability to ‘deduce’ the French motorway network in a series of analogue and digital experiments. We compare Physarum network and motorway network topology in relation to proximity graphs and assess the trade-off between connectivity and minimal network length with a bottom-up model of a virtual plasmodium. We demonstrate that despite the apparent complexity of the challenge, Physarum can successfully apply its embodied intelligence to rationalise the motorway topology. We also demonstrate that such calculations prove challenging in the face of significant obstacles such as, mountainous terrain and may account for the missing route between Nice, Grenoble, Avignon and Lyon. Finally, we discuss the topological findings with respect to circle and spoke city planning infrastructures and certain species of web-building spiders.

The common European Information and Communications Technology sector vision for 5G is that it should leverage on the strengths of both optical and wireless technologies. In the 5G context, a wide spectra of radio access technologies-such as millimetre wave transmission, massive multiple-input multiple-output and new waveforms-demand for high capacity, highly flexible and convergent transport networks. As the requirements imposed on future 5G networks rise, so do the challenges in the transport network. Hence, 5G-XHaul proposes a converged optical and wireless transport network solution with a unified control plane based on software defined networking. This solution is able to support the flexible backhaul and fronthaul-X-Haul-options required to tackle the future challenges imposed by 5G radio access technologies. 5G-XHaul studies the trade-offs involving fully or partially converged backhaul and fronthaul functions, with the aim of maximising the associated sharing benefits, improving efficiency in resource utilisation and providing measurable benefits in terms of overall cost, scalability and sustainability. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The maritime sector in Malaysia is best known globally due to the Straits of Malacca and being a nation surrounded by sea. Malaysia also has a substantial maritime industry consisting of numerous shipyards, ports and terminal faculties, ship services and a plethora of other companies and institutions with maritime oriented activities and become essential components of the Malaysia's maritime clusters. Issues such as underutilised intermodal terminals, uneven proportions in the freight transport infrastructure and road and seaport congestions prevent Malaysian seaports from achieving their full potential in serving their respective hinterlands. The key factors to improve Malaysian dry port or intermodal terminals are transport network; container planning; competition; location and, externalities. The paper does not only present the critical challenges faced by Malaysian intermodal terminals especially dry ports and the implications for seaport competency but it also provides strategies to utilise the Malaysian freight multimodal system to amplify seaports tm) performance in serving their hinterlands. As such, this may warrant policy makers to devise a comprehensive national master plan for the maritime sector in order for Malaysia to further develop her maritime industry and economies.

We propose an approach for estimating the efficiency of biological systems and mechanisms in vivo. We compare two mechanisms for chemical transport: diffusion and endosome transport with a cargo along a system of microtubules. Our efficiency evaluation is based on a comparison of the organism's energy expenditure for cell house-keeping and the transport system's operation with the speed of cargo delivery. We study the relation between transport efficiency and adaptability of the transport network. Our approach can be used to study models of live systems and solve problems of artificial life design.

That CCS will be required to operate in a flexible and load following fashion in the diverse energy landscape of the 21st century is well recognised. However, what is less well understood is how these plants will be dispatched at the unit generator scale, and what effect this will have on the performance and behaviour of the plant at the individual unit operation level. To address this gap, we couple an investment and unit commitment energy system model with a detailed plant-level model of a super-critical coal-fired power station integrated with an amine-based post-combustion CO2 capture process. We provide insight into the likely role of coal and gas CCS plants in the UK's energy system in the 2030s, 2040s and 2050s. We then evaluate the impact that this has on the performance of an individual coal CCS plant operating in this system, and chart its evolution throughout this period. Owing to the increased frequency and duration of part-load operation, asset utilisation and average efficiency suffer, leading to a substantially increased LCOE, implying that CCS costs will need to decrease more rapidly than is currently expected. Further, as a direct consequence of the dynamic operation, the interaction of the CCS plants with the downstream CO2 transport network is characterised by highly transient behaviour, including periods during which no CO2 is injected to the transport network, implying that the transport system must therefore be designed to incorporate this variability of supply.

The safety in numbers (SiN) effect is often invoked as a mechanism by which increasing numbers of vulnerable road users introduced into a transport network can result in reduced per-capita risk of collision resulting in injury or death. Mechanisms underlying SiN’s function, however, have not been well described. Extending previous agent-based modelling work, this study explored the potential role of behavioural adaptation of drivers to the presence of cyclists that followed patterns of Rescorla–Wagner (R–W) learning models. Results indicated that SiN effects consistent with those present in real-world studies were replicable in a simulated environment, and that R–W model input settings were able to control the strength of the SiN effect in combination with the influence of increased cyclist density. The combined theoretical and simulation model presented here provides a novel means by which the potential safety effects of cycling policy settings and interventions may be academically and practically explored.

Automatic real-time control of traffic perturbations has recently become a central issue for many European railway infrastructure managers. The aim is to make use of mathematical algorithms to maintain the required service availability during unplanned disturbances to operations. In the literature many tools for real-time traffic control are proposed, but their effects on traffic have never been studied neither in real life nor in fully realistic simulation environments. We can mention only a few pilot tests and a unique installation in the Lötschberg Base tunnel in Switzerland, which uses a replanning framework that is generally applicable but does not consider a standard data communication format. Standardisation of railway data is instead one of the main requirements of the European Railway Traffic Management System (ERTMS) to enable traffic interoperability across different countries along the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T). Following this direction, this paper introduces one of the outputs of the European project ON-TIME: a framework for the automatic real-time management of railway traffic, designed for being standard and interoperable across different European railways. We make use of a web-based Service-Oriented Architecture to ensure scalability and flexibility of application. A standard railML interface is used for the input/output data of the modules, allowing immediate applicability of the framework to any network having a railML representation. A proof-of-concept is provided where the framework is tested in a closed-loop with the simulation environment HERMES for perturbed traffic scenarios on different networks in the UK, the Netherlands and Sweden. Tests are performed for two different replanning algorithms (ROMA and RECIFE) used for the automatic detection and optimised resolution of train conflicts. The two algorithms are compared on the test case in Sweden. Results show that the design of the proposed framework is effective in managing traffic perturbations and is extendible to real-life systems.Automatic real-time control of traffic perturbations has recently become a central issue for many European railway infrastructure managers. The aim is to make use of mathematical algorithms to maintain the required service availability during unplanned disturbances to operations. In the literature many tools for real-time traffic control are proposed, but their effects on traffic have never been studied neither in real life nor in fully realistic simulation environments. We can mention only a few pilot tests and a unique installation in the Lötschberg Base tunnel in Switzerland, which uses a replanning framework that is generally applicable but does not consider a standard data communication format. Standardisation of railway data is instead one of the main requirements of the European Railway Traffic Management System (ERTMS) to enable traffic interoperability across different countries along the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T). Following this direction, this paper introduces one of the outputs of the European project ON-TIME: a framework for the automatic real-time management of railway traffic, designed for being standard and interoperable across different European railways. We make use of a web-based Service-Oriented Architecture to ensure scalability and flexibility of application. A standard railML interface is used for the input/output data of the modules, allowing immediate applicability of the framework to any network having a railML representation. A proof-of-concept is provided where the framework is tested in a closed-loop with the simulation environment HERMES for perturbed traffic scenarios on different networks in the UK, the Netherlands and Sweden. Tests are performed for two different replanning algorithms (ROMA and RECIFE) used for the automatic detection and optimised resolution of train conflicts. The two algorithms are compared on the test case in Sweden. Results show that the design of the proposed framework is effective in managing traffic perturbations and is extendible to real-life systems.

Transportation networks constitute a critical infrastructure enabling the transfers of passengers and goods, with a significant impact on the economy at different scales. Transportation modes, whether air, road, or rail, are intrinsically coupled through passenger transfers and are interdependent. The frequent occurrence of perturbations on one or several modes disrupts passengers' entire journeys, directly and through ripple effects. This paper provides a case report of the Asiana crash in San Francisco International Airport (SFO) on July 6, 2013, and its repercussions on the multimodal transportation network. It studies the resulting propagation of disturbances on the transportation infrastructure in the USA, particularly on the U.S. air transport network and the ground transportation in the Bay Area. The perturbation takes different forms and varies in scale and time frame: cancelations and delays snowball in the airspace, with up to 86% of cancelations in the U.S. due to the SFO crash; highway traffic near the airport is impacted by congestion in previously not congested locations, with low speed and high delays on US 101; and transit passenger demand exhibits unusual traffic peaks in between airports in the Bay Area, with up to 180 passengers more per hour between SFO and Oakland International Airport Bay Area Rapid Transit stations. This paper also investigated the effect of the crash on the social media Twitter. This paper, through a case study, aims at stressing the importance of further data-driven research on interdependent infrastructure networks. The end goal is to form the basis for optimization models behind providing more reliable passenger door-to-door journeys and improved transport network resilience.

Travel patterns in urban areas are becoming increasingly complex, and many public transport users need to transfer between different modes to complete their daily trips. Transport interchanges play a key role as urban transport network nodes, and the quality of the service provided in an urban transport interchange therefore has a direct influence on travellers’ daily experience. This study proposes a useful methodological framework to identify the potential strengths and weaknesses of urban transport interchanges and to manage resources more efficiently. It is based on a two-step analytical procedure combining the classification and regression tree model and importance-performance analysis. A travellers’ attitudinal survey was carried out in the Moncloa transport interchange (Madrid, Spain) and the methodological framework was applied to the data collected. The greatest strengths of the interchange from the users’ point of view are the information provision through signposting, the features of the internal design of the interchange which have a direct influence on aspects related to safety performance, and security conditions, particularly during day-time.

Examines distortions of spatial development of the city of Moscow and the resulting urban planning, transport, social problems of the Centre of the metropolis. It is concluded that the efforts made by the Government of Moscow measures may be insufficient without strategic direction orientation of integrated urban underground space utilizing the potential of the city and especially its central zone. Reviewed the background and direction through the development of urbanization of underground objects. Provides suggestions for the justification and the preparation of a new master plan for the city, improve other instruments of urban management. Also provides specific recommendations for the optimization of the underground transport network in the central part of the city by embedding new stations on existing radial lines and justify slopes of underground, taking into account the geological conditions (with the creation of 3D models for this purpose). The basis of urban planning should become a principle of consideration of underground space as an integrated resource land. Proceeding from it, on an example of underground objects (like infrastructural skeleton of the city) are creating a spatial direction underground-ground systems, as well as improving their energy efficiency and utilization of recoverable materials. It is concluded that, despite the complexity of the tasks, their solution (with proper organization in the system of State Administration) is possible. It significantly will contribute to the achievement of the declared goal of sustainable development of the Russian capital.

Strategic transportation network models are often used as support tools in the framework of decisions to be taken at the policy level, such as the Trans-European Network projects. These models are mostly setup using aggregated or limited data. If their calibration is regularly mentioned in the literature, their validation is barely discussed. In this paper, several modal choice model specifications that make only use of explanatory variables available at the network level are described and applied to a large scale case. A validation exercise is performed at three levels of aggregation. The paper is designed from a strategic transport planning perspective, and does not present new modal choice formulations or assignment procedures. Its main added value is the focus on calibration and validation considerations. Despite the limited explanatory information used, the global performance of the best models can be considered as satisfactory. However, the quality of the models varies from mode to mode, the use of railway transport being the most difficult to predict without more specific input.

As a part of the new Danube bridge project in the Baja – Kalocsa region the Government of Hungary ordered a feasibility study and location plan to prepare the new bridge investment. Primary goal of the feasibility study was to explore all requirements of the development and subsequent operation of the Paks City Nuclear Powerplant, and according to these suggestions - analyze the technical, environmental, social and economic aspects - to give proposals for the new place and structural system of the new bridge, and proposals for the indispensable implementation of the transport network elements necessarily needed. The key task of the feasibility study was to investigate, and compare the possible structural systems at the chosen location, and to define the optimal variant – for further developments until the level of permition plan. The optional structural system is highly influenced by the possible spans, which is primarily specified by water management and shipping management criteria, so these conditions were basic parameters at each variants. The following structural system variants were elaborated and investigated in the study plans: girder bridge, cable-stayed bridge, truss bridge, extradosed bridge and arch bridge. The building system, possible special building technology needs, estimated building time, estimated costs of maintenance and operation, and the aesthetics of the designed bridge were taken into consideration at the comparison of the structural systems. Because of the simplicity of construction method, advanced technology and aesthetic appearance, the extradosed bridge were preferred with 200+220+200 m inner spans for implementation. When making the feasibility study, one of the Client's requirements was to invest the economical railway connection of the nearby power plant through the bridge, that's why economical alternatives were presented for possible railway line realizations on the structure. The paper mentions the design parameters, the advantages and disadvantages of the presented concepts in the feasibility study. It presents the difficulties and solutions during design and construction phase.

As the future of autonomous vehicles (AVs) becomes more certain, transport network managers may seek ways to reinvent elements of the traffic network to improve efficiency. One possibility is dynamic lane reversal, in which the network operator makes use of AV communications and behavior to change the direction of flow on a road link at smaller time intervals than would be possible with human drivers. Although there is much research into the mechanical details of AVs, this study motivates the need for future research by focusing on a planning application in which AVs are already present. A novel extension to an established system optimal dynamic traffic assignment model based on the cell transmission model was examined. The model determined the optimal lane configuration at small space–time intervals. Results demonstrate the model on a single link and a grid network and explore the dynamic demand scenarios that are most conducive to increasing system efficiency with dynamic lane reversal.

There are many initiatives in the market capable to assess some aspects of sustainability for roads (mainly environmental). For instance, in America it should be noted the Greenroads, Envision and Invest certification systems. In Europe, it must be highlighted some sustainability assessment systems such as Ceequal in United Kingdom (UK) as well as rating and awards scheme for civil engineering or many tools to evaluate CO₂ and Carbon Footprint, for example, the Dutch CO₂ Performance Ladder. However, a complete evaluation of sustainability has not been implemented yet as a consequence of that some approaches do not cover all life cycle phases or all sustainability pillars. What is more, there is a lack of regulation in terms of a framework for sustainability assessment of civil constructions, for instance, European Committee for Standardization (CENTC) 350 is still under development In addition, there are regional peculiarities which are not always considered in the evaluation systems and sometimes there are some stakeholders refusing the idea of road comparison. The European Commission (EC) by means of the Joint Research Centre (DG-JRC) is developing the Green Public Procurement Criteria (GPP) for design, construction and maintenance of roads, as useful method for the pre-selection criteria for contractors and for ensuring compliance of performance. This paper summarizes the new sustainability certification system for roads named “LCE4ROADS”, under development as part of the Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development (FP7) project: “Life Cycle Engineering approach to develop a novel EU-harmonized sustainability certification system for cost-effective, safer and greener road infrastructures”. LCE4ROADS will integrate by a Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) approach, all the aspects of sustainability (Environmental, Economic, Social, Technical) to asses roads projects and works (both new construction and rehabilitation/maintenance) with the final goal of creating a holistic and European Union (EU) harmonized methodology to increase the sustainability roads. The certification system developed is based on current EN and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards for sustainability in construction (EN15804) and life cycle analysis (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) (ISO 14040-44 and ISO15686) and considers previous developments from other research projects like MIRAVEC, EVITA, COST 354 among others. Key aspects at European level like the adaptation and resilience to Climate Change and the implementation of freight corridors (the so called TEN-T: Trans European Transport Network) will be considered in this new certification system. With the goal of refining the certification system and the parameters and key performance indicators to be considered, it should be mentioned that LCE4ROADS has been already presented to different key stakeholders such as: (1) National and Regional Road Authorities in six EU countries (France, The Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Sweden, Poland) and in Turkey (The Turkish Ministry of Transport (KGM) is partner of the FP7 Project). (2) The European Commission (DG Research, DG Environment, DG JRC, and DG Move-Transport) (3) Sectorial Platforms and Associations like the European Committee for Standardization (CEN), The European Road Federation (ERF), the Spanish Construction Technology Platform (mirror of the European ECTP) among others. The United States Federal Highway Administration (USFHWA) is also interested in this topic and is working closely to the FP7 project team (the EC selected the project to collaborate with the most important transport research center in America). The feedback received for future implementation from the key stakeholders has been taken into consideration to modify the scope of the certification system, the phases covered and the certification moments. This system, together with a guide for application and a multi-criteria software tool to be developed could be really useful for future procurement and GPP processes in Europe.

This paper presents the multimodal transport model done for Feasibility Study Update of Railway Corridor Žilina – Kosice – Cierna nad Tisou – state border, in the Slovak Republic. Model includes entire area of Slovakia in different levels of detail and also border and remote European external zones. The data of freight preference in Slovakia we obtained from adaptive state preference survey on main freighters in Slovakia. Each of participants was asked to deal with maximally three logistic tasks. The entire freight task was defined by transported commodity, length of transport path and transport mode used in the present. For each of the tasks respondent passed adaptive state preference experiment where mode, cost, travel time and reliability were attributes of alternatives. 51 freighters participated on the survey and they were asked about 71 freight tasks. We find out that railroad or road mode was not preferred significantly but freighters are resistant to change routine freight traffic mode. In general, specific constant of present usage mode was positive and almost thirty times larger than value of time. This is complication for standard modal shift traffic model because alternative specific constant could not be assigned to specific traffic mode equation. Moreover, actual data of freight transport in Slovakia have different level of accuracy. Very accurate and detailed information (commodity and values in origin-destination pairs) were available for railway transport. On the other hand, there was lack of information about road freight transport. This difficulty leads us to build double modal split model for road and railway freight transport. Trip generation process is comprised of two components which represents two (railway and road) currently used modes. First part of trip generation process contains matrix of volumes of freight currently transported by rail. The second part of the process estimate origin-destination matrix by trip production and attraction model and represented road freight transport. This model is based on knowledge about location of big companies and population density. The two products of trip generation processes enter modal split model which is doubled again. One of the modal split models is for freighters who currently use railroad and second of them is model for current road freight users. Each of the two models prefers” own traffic mode. Four origin-destination matrices are product of the entire modal split process. One pair of the OD matrices is for railway freight transport and the other pair is for road freight transport. Corresponding matrices are put together for the next step of the modelling – assignment of mode specific freight demand matrices to model transport network, by the generalized costs method. In the part of transport model supply, freight trains and their attributes (type, capacity, speed, and time intervals) were put in the model. The model can simulate both direct cargo transport from origins to destinations and cargo movement by trucks, manipulation trains and relational trains in order to optimize transport of carried goods.