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Belt conveyors are used for transporting bulk materials over distances. The core of the belt, by transferring the longitudinal stresses and ensuring proper frictional coupling of the belt, enables belt movement and transportation of materials on its surface. As the belt cover and edges are used, the belt becomes abraded, and the core is subject to fatigue. The result is the development of cracks in rubber covers across the belt, which leads to the development of damage not only along the cables (the natural direction of water migration and corrosion) but also in the direction transverse to the belt axis. Conducting a series of scans of the St-type belt operating in one of the underground copper ore mines in Poland allowed identifying the number of failures as well as their size and changes over time. These data were in turn used to determine the measures defining the condition of the belt such as the density of defects (the number of defects per 1 m of the belt), the density of the area of damage (the area of damage per 1 m of the belt) and the change in the average area of a single defect over time. By determining the regression of these measures in time and the rate of damage development in both directions (along the axis of the belt and across the belt), it was possible to forecast future states of the belt, as well as to evaluate the costs of different belt replacement strategies and the economic rationalization of the decision to replace them. This research has become possible owing to the development of the DiagBelt system for two-dimensional imaging of the damage to the core of steel-cord belts with resolution sufficiently high to allow tracking the development of single core defects.

The authors study the ground surface displacement in the area of Zhezkazgan copper ore field now subjected to extraction of ore reserves from rib pillars. The high-precision leveling procedure using digital leveling instrumentation and invar leveling staffs is proposed for the application in arrangement of a geodynamic test site at the settlements of Zhezkazgan and Lermontovo. The steel control survey points are firmly connected with rock mass by means of grouting. The observation results made it possible to detect and evaluate the ground surface displacements.

The Author discusses the evidence of copper ore winning and smelting in Lombardy during the late Bronze/early Iron Ages and observes that far more copper ore reduction sites than copper deposits ar...

We describe smelting furnaces found in southwestern Siberia, at the Tartas-1 ritual site, representing the eastern variant of the Pakhomovskaya culture. This is so far the only known site where the ritual complex, which includes post holes, and utility and ritual pits, adjoins a special manufacturing area with furnaces for smelting copper ore and processing bronze. The pits, differing in form, depth, and size, belonged to a structure. Furnaces are of two types: deep ones, dug into virgin soil, and shallow ones with domes. The former were destined for smelting ore, and the latter for processing metal. The construction of both types is described in detail. The smelting furnaces are peculiar and have no direct parallels in the Late Bronze Age settlements and sanctuaries of southwestern Siberia, while being somewhat similar to smelting furnaces of the Early Iron Age Itkul culture of the Trans-Urals. Furnaces of the second type resemble those of the local Late Irmen culture. Apparently, in the Baraba forest-steppe, where no copper ore outcrops are available, the ritual complexes included furnaces destined for both smelting ore and processing metal. The bronze metallurgy in the region may have been introduced by immigrants practicing both copper ore smelting and metal processing.

The paper is devoted to tin ores as an alloying impurity in the bronze production by the ancient population of the Dnieper-Don region in the Late Bronze Age. The eastern and western supply vectors providing the local population with both ore (cassiterite) and its products are considered. The author draws attention to the assumptions of some researchers not confirmed by geological surveys about the possibility of finding tin deposits in the Donbass and Krivoy Rog basin, which could probably have been developed in the Early Metal Age. An opinion was given regarding the production of bronze from copper ore with a high content of metals - impurities in the mineral phase and separately from polymetallic ore. In ancient times for the development of any mineral, its availability for development, as well as a great volume or high content of useful mineral in ore were indispensable conditions. Due to existing technologies, the requirements for minerals in antiquity were much higher than modern ones. On the issue of tin raw materials for bronze production of the ancient population of Ukraine, attention is drawn to the assumption, not yet confirmed by geological surveys of some researchers (S.I. Tatarinov, D.P. Kravets, D.P. Nedopako) on the possibility of finding tin deposits in such ore-rich regions of Ukraine as the Donbass and Krivoy Rog. The experimental work carried out on the basis of ores of the Kartamysh ore occurrence have indeed confirmed the idea of chemical elements redistribution, when some metals decrease and others increase. This trend with reference to the results of spectral analyzes of Bakhmut ores, slags and products of the Donetsk Mining and Metallurgical Center, performed by E.N. Chernykh was noted by S.I. Tatarinov. However, to obtain bronze, a high percentage of bronze-forming impurities is required, including tin in the minerals. However, the copper and polymetallic ores of Donbass do not contain enough tin in the initial ore to produce tin bronze. A series of our experiments yielded just pure copper. Thus, the author reposes on the commune notion, according to which it is not possible to obtain bronze from copper ores of Donbass and bronze without on purpose input of the appropriate elements into the melt.

This paper analyses 20 Late Bronze Age (ca 1080–800 BC) copper alloy objects to discern their manufacture and the skills of local craftsmen. Several tools and jewellery were studied that originated from a bronze workshop located immediately next to the Prigglitz-Gasteil copper ore mining site and several contemporaneous sites in the surrounding area. The samples were studied with optical microscopy (microstructurally), and SEM-EDXS and XRF (chemical analyses). Our analyses are part of a larger study and suggest that the Prigglitz region’s bronze production was not standardized. Particular alloys do not seem to have been chosen for object types or due to their intended use-function. Notably, approximately 20% of the objects contain unalloyed copper inclusions, which are most likely a result of the incomplete mixing of scrap metals and alloys during their production.

The foothills of the North-Western Kuznetsky Alatau are considered as the copper-ore base of the Tagar archaeological culture. The paper introduced some published data on copper deposits on the banks of the river Kia and the bordering area of the Kuznetsky Alatau. Map-marking revealed the geographical the connection between the Koghuh tectonic area, the Central-Martaiga structure-formaton area, and the Tagar archaeological sites. The research registered the known settlements on the Kemerovo region territory with signs of the bronze industry (copper-bronze artifacts, tools for ore crushing, slag) related to Tagar and transitional Tagar-Tashtik Epoch. The peculiarities of such sites demonstrated the localization of the bronze industry process in the some fortified and stable settlements. The comparison of geochemical admixtures revealed the differences of copper-ore origin at the developed stage of Tagar culture and the transitional Tagar-Tashtik stage. This can be explained by the difference in geography of the sites as related to the copper deposits of North-Western, Northern, and North-Eastern Kuznetsky Alatau foothills. The authors believe that the banks of the Kia and its left tributaries, the Koghuh and the Kundat, can reveal some ancient copper mining archaeological sites in the future.

Chalcocite-dominant secondary copper ore with a high pyrite content had a rapidly increased iron concentration in the middle and later periods of bioleaching, which increased the difficulty of separating copper and iron ions in the leaching solution. In the two aspects of microbial community succession and energy band theory, the selective dissolution mechanism of chalcocite in this type of copper ore was analyzed and illustrated using experiments and first-principles calculations. The results showed that controlling the solution potential at a lower level was beneficial to the selective leaching of chalcocite, while bacteria promoted the leaching of pyrite and chalcocite simultaneously by oxidizing Fe2+ to Fe3+ in the solution. Below 700 mV of solution potential, the bacterial community, mainly consisting of Acidithiobacillus and Sulfobacillus, had a stronger promotion on the selective dissolution of chalcocite. The solution energy level of bioleaching was higher than ideal pyrite but lower than ideal chalcocite, which resulted in the accumulation of electrons on the surface of pyrite and the formation of holes at the top of the chalcocite valence band. When bacteria assisted the oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ and caused the raise of the solution potential, the difference between the solution energy level and the top of the pyrite valence band would be smaller than the width of the pyrite energy gap. Below 700 mV, the assistance of Acidithiobacillus and Sulfobacillus on the oxidation of Fe2+ was weak. Chalcocite would be selectively dissolved by oxygen and a small amount of Fe3+ in the solution. Because of the existence of Fe, Cu, and S vacancies in real minerals, the atomic activity in the Cu–S bond and the Fe–S bond enhanced, and the reaction difficulty between chalcocite, pyrite, and electron acceptors in the solution reduced. The solution potential should be controlled at 600 mV or less to ensure the selective dissolution of chalcocite.

On the basis of geological assessment of reserves of copper ore in the territory of the Khanty-Mansiisk Autonomous Okrug–Ugra possibilities are considered for developing potential pyrite ore regions considered to be priority for development of pyrite copper-zinc ores. The volumes of primary ore extraction are proved, and the main approaches to developing deposits, parameters of priority quarries and the composition of the main technological and processing equipment are determined. Approaches and a fundamental qualitative-quantitative scheme are developed for pre-concentration of ore using dry methods for pre-enrichment whose implementation will make it possible to minimize adverse environmental impact on the Circumpolar Ural environment. A production scheme is developed for the chain of concentrating processing mining and processing plant devices for treating copper ore. Volumes of raw material and intermediate concentrate processing are determined that ensure the economic effective development.

This paper presents the results of mineralogical and flotation studies on the copper ore from the deposit "North Revir" in the Copper Mine Majdanpek, using different collectors. XRD and ore mineralogical analysis showed that the most common minerals are pyrite and chalcopyrite. Chemical analysis confirm that it is a complex low-grade copper ore with average copper content of 0,273%. The content of precious metals (Au and Ag) was 0.2 g/t and 1.2 g/t, respectively. The main aim of flotation studies have been the effect of collector type on the recovery and concentrate grade in the copper flotation process. Various collectors and combinations of them were used in the rough flotation tests of copper ore. The copper recovery was in the range from 79.43% (test no. 4) to 84.96% (test no. 7). The best flotation results were obtained with mixture collectors of sodium isopropyl xanthate (Z11), dialkyl dithiophosphinates (Aerophine 3404) and SKIK BZ 2000. The collector's dosages of 20 g/t Z11, 8 g/t AP3404 and 8 g/t SKIK BZ 2000 produced the copper recovery (84.96 %) with copper concentrate grade of 1.52% .

Metallurgical technology is one of the greatest inventions in history, as smelting, processing, and the use of metals are vital signs of a civilized society. The origin of metallurgy has been disputed around the world for ages. Some scholars believe that the metallurgical technology of Eurasia originated from the ancient Near East and later spread to other regions (Roberts 2009); others assert that the metallurgy of the Old World had several origins (Thatcher 2010, Appendix II, pp. 269–275). The earliest use of bronzes may date back to the 8th–6th millennium B.C. in Asia Minor and the Near East. In Cayonu Tepes, a Neolithic settlement in Turkey, bronzes made directly from copper ore were found. However, due to the immature metallurgical technology of the time, only a few types of small bronzes could be made; developed large bronzes or bronze tools that can reflect people’s daily life have not yet been found (Chernykh 1992). Therefore, it is still difficult to conclude that the metallurgical technology of other parts of Eurasia originated from Asia Minor or the Near East, and no consensus has been reached on this issue in academia to date.

The present work aims at investigating the effect of microwave local positions (i.e. before crushing (BC), after crushing (AC) and after milling (AM)) on microwave-assisted flotation of chalcopyrite and pyrite in a porphyry copper complex deposit. Individual given samples for each state were pre-treated with a variable power microwave at a power level of 90 to 900W for 15, 30, and 60s. Furthermore, froth floatation experiments were carried out using a laboratory mechanical Denver flotation cell on both microwave-treated and untreated samples. Particle surface properties were characterized by a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis. The results showed that the chalcopyrite and pyrite floatabilities increased monotonically by rising the exposure time and power level for the uncrushed preconditioned samples (BC) due to the enhancement of mineral liberation degrees together with the formation of sulphide species and polysulphides on the mineral surfaces. However, flotation results of treated samples for the crushed one (AC) revealed an optimum range. Formation of intensive oxide layers on the mineral surfaces of milled samples (AM) led to a substantial reduction in their recoveries by increasing the microwave’s power level and the sample’s exposure time. The results obtained from mineral’s floatabilities in recleaner stage showed that the microwave-assisted sample at 900W for 30s at BC state favourably provided 5% higher S.E.’s than that of the untreated sample. Finally, it was concluded that the microwave pretreatment of samples induced the best floatability responses if it located before the crusher.

Minerals are one of the most abundant elements in nature, and they have a strong and distinctive presence and influence in civilization. Humanity, as its multiple capabilities have contributed to the realization of many achievements, starting with simple metal tools To the strong compounds, the discovery of minerals is a revolution in the history of the development of human thought, as it moved from the era of The use of stones to the era of using minerals and the subsequent discovery of their strength and uniqueness, and one of the most important minerals Copper metal, which was used in the past in the manufacture of weapons and tools, had great effects in industrial development And utensils, as it was also used in the field of arts, as the ancient Egyptian artist used it in the molding of artworks And converting it to the ore bronze, and the use of copper ore in the technical field has gone through many stages of development, as The Coptic artist and Islamic artist used it to make brass vessels and lamps, which were not used For the utilitarian purpose only, but the artist has combined it with many artistic inscriptions of motifs and themes that abound in both Of those arts, Coptic and Islamic art left us with a great legacy of these copper artworks, which It was rich in artistic and aesthetic values, and the use of this noble material did not end with the end of those ages, but rather it was inherited.

Archaeological publications connect the raw material used for the production of copper and bronze artifacts discovered during the excavations carried on in Szeklerland to the use of the chalcopyrite from the Bălan copper ore deposit. So far, this assumption has not been confirmed by concrete evidence. Men of the Bronze Age can’t possibly have had knowledge of the metallurgy of sulphide-type copper ores such as chalcopyrite. Applying investigations based on spectroscopy, the Bronze Age use of chalcopyrite from Bălan could be either confirmed or refuted, the new data throwing more light on the provenance of the bronze artifacts discovered in the Szeklerland.

Misreported pyrite into copper concentrates dramatically declines copper grade and recovery. Copper flotation can be also more complicated if flotation feed comes from an elevated-pyritic copper ore. In this investigation, the effect of two different ore types (high pyritic and low pyritic feeds) was studied on rougher stage of industrial copper flotation circuit. Samples were taken from different streams and the structure of chalcopyrite within the pyrite and non-sulfide gangue minerals was examined in various size fractions for mentioned ore types. Results indicated that 72% and 56% of the total floated pyrite was transferred to concentrate in first four cells in the low and high pyritic feeds, respectively. Whereas, this proportion for floated SiO2 in last ten cells was detected as 72% and 71%, respectively. A detailed interpretation of the effect of locked particles in different size fractions on rougher flotation cells is studied from industrial point of view. Keywords: Liberation degree, High pyritic feed, Pyrite, Froth flotation, Chalcopyrite

Abundant evidence suggests that the massive global exploitation of copper mines over the last two decades led to mine aging expressed as ore grade reduction, deepening of open pits and underground operations, hardening of the rock, and increasing stripping ratios. These processes have affected the evolution and change of key environmental footprint indicators. Copper ore grade decline seems the most important of these factors and depends on variables including the rate of extraction, ore deposit geological features, introduction of new technologies, the copper price and its co-products, and the discovery and exploitation of new ore deposits. From 2001 to 2015 Chile increased its copper production by 22% and produced overall 80 million tons of copper, more than it produced in the entire 20th century. This paper explores the effects of mine aging on three key environmental footprint indicators: energy and water consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions. Electric energy consumption per ton of copper should grow in the coming decade at a significantly slower rate than in the last fifteen years because of the slowdown of the ore grade decline in mill concentrators. Additionally, a steeper decrease is expected for the emission of greenhouse gases per ton of copper.

Flotation waste, which was produced through seventy years of copper ore processing in RTB Bor, Serbia, is deposited in a flotation tailings pond. In total, almost 26.4 Mt could be considered as available for eventual reprocessing and reuse. Chemical analysis has shown that an average concentration of targeted metals in the tailings is: 0.183% Cu, 0.35 g/t Au and 2.17 g/t Ag. The tailings contain 60 to 70% of SiO2, 10 to 17% of Al2O3 and pyrite 5 to 8%. Flotation tailings reprocessing consisted of acid leaching followed by re-flotation of the leach residue. Leaching of the tailings resulted in leach liquors containing Cu2+ ions from 50 to 580 ppm. The average copper removal degree in the leaching stage was 70%. After re-flotation, the total copper removal degree reached 83 to 85%. Sulphur removal degree reached 77%. Sulphur concentration in the treated tailings was reduced almost 5 times compared to the inlet concentration. An equivalent amount of iron was also reduced through the flotation process. Concentration of total copper was reduced 3 times.

Most of the existing Life Cycle Assessment studies addressing the environmental impacts of copper production exclude the emissions generated by tailings. This study aims at compiling the life cycle inventory related to the storage of tailings from sulfidic copper ore concentration, in the specific case of a plant located in south-west Poland. The environmental impacts induced by these tailings are compared with the rest of the environmental impacts of copper production. This study demonstrates that, when considering toxicity-related environmental impact categories, the potential impacts related to the storage of tailings in dedicated facilities are a key issue in the life cycle impact assessment of copper concentrate production, and consequently of copper production. Depending on the temporal perspective considered in the study, the disposal of sulfidic tailings induces impacts that may be several orders of magnitude larger than those of copper concentrate production. Yet, when limiting the considered temporal perspective to 100 years, tailings storage has a relatively low contribution to the impacts of concentrate production. The discrepancy between the impacts related to copper concentrate production and those of tailings disposal is highly dependent on both the temporal perspective considered in the LCA study and the actual conditions of tailings management in the future.

The article describes a series of Bronze Age metal axes from the forest-steppe zone of the Altai. Most are random finds without definite cultural or chronological attribution. We provide a detailed description of four specimens from Bor-Forpost, Mamontovo, Karpovo, and Severny, owned by various museums of the Altai Territory. The chemical composition of alloys is assessed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Results are discussed with reference to bronze metallurgy, sources of copper ore, and typological parallels. Chronology of each type of axes is tentatively evaluated in the context of Middle and Late Bronze Age cultures of the Ob-Irtysh watershed and adjoining regions.

Deep underground mines impose new challenges for mining industry when searching for new hardly accessible deposits. These challenges are related to locations of deposits, their geometry, and harsh environment (dust, temperature, and humidity) including natural hazards (gas emission, water, and seismic events). Even nowadays, miners are allowed to work during shorter (6 h only) shifts. It is expected that this period will be shortened in the following years. More demanding conditions in the mine focus activities of companies and research institutions toward introducing robots to the mines. There are many successful examples of autonomous machines operated in the mine, robotized processes, and application of UAVs in open-cast mines. Unfortunately, applications of robotics in an underground mine are still limited. In this paper, we will introduce recently launched project THING, supported by H2020 EU programme that is devoted to the usage of autonomous quadrupedal robot ANYmal for inspection of infrastructure in deep copper ore mine. To be more precise, we will discuss how to support daily maintenance procedures for belt conveyors. In the paper, we will briefly present ANYmal, highlight main research tasks from maintenance and robotic perspective and discuss possible inspection missions for belt conveyor maintenance.

The Balkan Peninsula played a crucial role for the introduction of metallurgy during the Copper Age and numerous archaeometallurgical examinations have delivered highly interesting insights on this topic. However, there is a lack of systematic analytical research on copper ore smelting and metal exchange for the later Bronze Age. In this paper we focus on the first archaeometallurgical results of slags from the sites Ružana, Trnjane and Coka Njica, Eastern Serbia, complimented by the discussion of XRF and lead isotope analyses carried out on 28 copper-based artefacts. Importantly, radiocarbon dating from these sites points to copper production already being undertaken at the end of the Early Bronze Age (19th–18th centuries BC), more than 500 years earlier than previously assumed. This enables us to investigate the flow of metal during the 1st half of the 2nd millennium BC. The analyses of the metallurgical slags indicate a copper matte smelting process in small open pit furnaces and the use of local sulfidic copper ore sources. The fact that these intensive smelting activities in Eastern Serbia can be paralleled with the early production hotspots in central Europe e.g. on the Hochkonig (Mitterberg mining areas) sheds new light on the development of copper based metallurgy in Europe. At the same time, the evidence from Eastern Serbia shows that this area was a source of raw material for copper and bronze alloys providing a regional and supra-regional perspective. Furthermore, our analyses revealed the remarkable result, that by the start of the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 1700 BC) copper from the Northern Italian mining areas in the Trentino region also reached the western and central Balkans.

This paper focusses on investigating the classification behaviours of the components having different densities and flow characteristics then developing preliminary model structure where these properties are considered. Such a study can improve the prediction accuracy of the existing models since material characteristics are of crucial importance. Within the scope of this study, laboratory scale experimental tests were undertaken on clinker, copper ore, magnetite and coal samples, at different operating conditions. The results concluded that, increasing the density decreased the cut size in the meantime increased the bypass of the classification operation. In addition, the sharpness and the fish hook parameters were found to be correlated with the flow characteristics of the material e.g., the higher the fluidity the higher the sharpness and the lower the fish-hook. As a conclusion of the study, the correlations presented in the paper were integrated into an existing air classifier model and preliminary multi component model structure for air classifiers was developed.

In 1955, the bull’s head, the most famous copper-based artifact in Bahrain, and a popular symbol of Dilmun culture, was discovered. Despite its importance, its popularity in Bahrain and the interest it generated, very little is known about its metallurgical background, chemical composition and alloy. A sample collected from the inner side of the bull’s head was examined by Energy Dispersive XRF (EDXRF) along with eight copper fragments from broken tools and objects for comparison. SEM micro-mapping was conducted on the bull’s head to support the EDXRF findings. The analyses revealed that the bull’s head is chemically compatible with Omani copper, and was cast with a mixture of newly-refined copper ore and recycled metal.

Comparison of dry and wet grinding process in an electromagnetic mill is presented in this paper. The research was conducted in a batch copper ore grinding. Batch mode allows for precise parametrization and constant repetitive conditions of the experiments. The following key aspects were tested: processing time, feed size, size of the grinding media, mass of the material and graining media, and density of the pulp. The particles size distribution of the product samples was analyzed in the laboratory after each experiment. The paper discusses the experimental results as well as the concept of dry and wet grinding and classification circuits for the electromagnetic mill. The main points of the discussion are the size reduction effectiveness and power consumption of the entire system.

The turning bands simulation is a valuable and highly useful tool in solving various geological-mining, environmental and geological-engineering problems when it is essential to determine the uncertainty of the estimates of simulated values Zs (realizations) and assess the risk. This paper presents an investigative methodology and the results of calculations connected with the use of conditional turning bands simulation and bundled indicator kriging, making it possible to analyse the risk at different levels of uncertainty in the solution of optimization of the exploitation problems encountered in the mining of the polymetallic copper ore deposits in the Lubin-Sieroszowice region (Foresudetic monocline, the SW part of Poland). Examples of the evaluation of simulated values Zs and probability P average values Z* of the deposit parameters within the block located in the Rudna Mine (the block R-3) area are provided.

A novel ore pre-concentration technique using high voltage pulses is proposed in this study. The technique utilises metalliferous grain-induced selective breakage, under a controlled pulse energy loading, and size-based screening to separate the feed ore into body breakage and surface breakage products for splitting of ores by grade. Four copper ore samples were tested to demonstrate the viability of this technique. This study consists of two parts: Part 1 presents the principle, the validation and the major findings; Part 2 discusses the new opportunities and challenges for the mining and mineral industry to take up this technique.

The construction industry has been improvising through the advances in innovation and procedure. Concrete, which is the essential part in development industry, is being utilized more than manmade materials and it expands more crude materials. Cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are vital ingredients of concrete .An earnest attempt is made through this project to fulfill all the pre and post factor of M20 concrete by partial replacement of cement by copper ore tailing of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and sand by iron ore tailing of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%. The effect of copper ore tailing and iron ore tailing for the partial replacement of cement and sand on strength and durability characteristics were analyzed and compared with normal concrete. The test results shows that 15% copper ore tailing and 30% iron ore tailing shows the good and optimized results. Its use will lead to a reduction in cement and sand quantity required for construction purposes and hence sustainability in the construction industry.

This paper assesses the economic analysis of the implementation of WEEE – Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive – processing plants in Brazil, through the study of potential copper extraction from this secondary source. A comparative approach was performed on its copper grade related to levels of its virgin ore mineral extracted from mines located in Brazil, in the United States and through a global average. The results demonstrate that the amount of copper mass originated from the recycling of disassembly of twenty electronic products ranges from 0.24% to 17.83% of its total mass, with an average of 3.63% of copper. In eighteen of these products, values greater than 0.4% were found, which surpass current levels of copper in ore mines in the USA. In fourteen products, these rates exceed the index of 1.5% copper in the ore, considered the minimum rate for the feasibility of opening new units of copper underground mining in Brazil. Thus, this paper shows the economic analysis that aims to guide on the viability of deploying WEEE processing plants, focusing on the expansion of recycling and reuse of copper by the processing industry.

The paper analyzes the possibility of increasing capacity at the Open Pit South Mining District in terms of achieving maximum net present value. The analysis is based on the movement of discounted cash flow during exploitation period of 18 years. The modern approach of designing the open pits was used for this consideration using the software Whittle and Gemcom Gems. The analysis showed a positive trend of discounted cash flow from the third year until the end of analyzed period in achieving the net present value in the amount of 596 252 546 $.

The character of one refractory gold copper mine located in the west of the Sichuan province is so complex, that the valuable element of the ore cannot be recovered by the traditional beneficiation processing. In this paper, a series of tests were conducted to optimize the suitable collector and develop a new beneficiation processing to recover the valuable associated minerals as while as the copper minerals. The results of the tests showed that the bulk-concentrate with 14.73% of Cu grade, 40.59×10-6 of Au grade and 2360.00×10-6 of Ag grade can be obtained from the recommended bulk flotation processing. The recommended processing showed in this paper could greatly improve the copper mineral recovery and reduce emissions of copper tailings, which is very important for the copper beneficiation technology development and the protection of the environment.

Im traditionsreichen Bergbaugebiet von Schwaz/Brixlegg im Nordtiroler Unterinntal fand während der späten Bronzezeit und frühen Eisenzeit ein umfangreicher Bergbau auf Kupfererze statt, der zahlreiche Spuren im Gelände hinterlassen hat. Montanarchäologische Forschungsprojekte der Universität Innsbruck, gefördert vom österreichischen Wissenschaftsfonds FWF und vom Tiroler Wissenschaftsfonds TWF, untersuchen seit den 1990er Jahren das prähistorische Montanwesen in diesem Raum. Zu den Forschungszielen gehören die Rekonstruktion der metallurgischen Produktionskette vom Erzabbau über die Aufbereitung bis hin zur Erzverhüttung und Gewinnung von Rohkupfer sowie der Arbeits- und Lebenswelt der prähistorischen Berg- und Hüttenleute. Die bislang prospektierten und in Ausschnitten archäologisch untersuchten Befunde belegen einen zeitlichen Schwerpunkt der Bergbauaktivitäten im 12. bis 8. Jh. v. Chr. Auf einem Verhüttungsplatz bei Radfeld (Mauk A) fanden sich 1997 bei der Freilegung einer „Waschrinne“ zur nassmechanischen Aufbereitung von Schlacken einige gut erhaltene Textilfragmente. Der archäologische Befund sowie die Textilfunde, Analysen zu Textiltechnik, Fasermaterial und Farbstoffen werden im folgenden Beitrag vorgestellt. Zudem werden die funktionelle Interpretation und kulturgeschichtliche Einordnung der Textilfunde diskutiert.--Dans la célèbre région minière de Schwaz/Brixlegg en Tyrol (vallée de l’Inn) se trouvent de nombreuses traces de travaux miniers datant de l’Âge du Bronze final à l’Âge de Fer ancien. L’exploitation de l’époque se concentrait sur le cuivre gris, matière première locale pour la production du cuivre. Depuis 1993 des projets de recherches interdisciplinaires sont effectués à l`Université de Innsbruck sous la promotion du Wissenschaftsfonds autrichien (FWF) et tyrolien (TWF). Les objectifs de ces recherches comprennent la reconstruction de la chaîne opératoire pour la production du cuivre (extraction du minerai, traitement et métallurgie) aussi bien que du monde du travail et du cadre de vie des communautés de mineurs préhistoriques. La datation de ces activités tombe dans la période du 12ème au 8ème siècle av. J.-C. Une fouille archéologique sur un site de métallurgie extractive (Radfeld, Mauk A, 1997) a mis au jour les vestiges d’une installation de lavage où des scories de cuivre finement broyées ont été lavées pour récupérer des inclusions riches en cuivre. Dans ce contexte, quelques fragments de textile bien conservé ont pu être récupérés. Le textile, le matériau en lui-même, ses colorants et la technologie de sa production sont présentés et discutés dans cette contribution ainsi que l’interprétation fonctionnelle et le contexte (pré-)historique et culturel.--In the traditional mining district Schwaz-Brixlegg in North-Tyrol a large amount of archaeological remains from an extensive Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age copper ore mining is still visible in the landscape. In 1993 the University of Innsbruck started with mining archaeological investigations in this area in the frame of several research projects, supported by the Austrian Science Fund FWF and the Tyrolian Science Fund TWF. The aim of the research program is to identify and to date prehistoric mining activities and to reconstruct the metallurgical production chain including mining, beneficiation and smelting of copper ores. Also the working and living environment of the prehistoric miners and smelters is studied. So far evidence for mining activities from the 12th to the 8th century BC could be provided. In the frame of archaeological excavations in 1997 at the Late Bronze Age smelting site Mauk A near Radfeld a few well preserved textile fragments could be recovered in the context of a washing installation, where crushed slag had been processed in order to obtain concentrates of copper rich inclusions. In this paper the textile finds will be presented in their archaeological context together with analysis on textile techniques, seam materials and dyestuffs. Furthermore, their functional interpretation and positioning in a larger historical context will be discussed.

In the paper, the middlings (tailings of I cleaner flotation) were characterized, and new possibilities of their processing were presented. The advantages of introducing a separate circuit for middlings processing were emphasized. This circuit should be adapted to the properties of the processed middlings and characterized by relative simplicity. An important element of the separate processing of middlings is grinding. The paper presents the advantages of the grinding process in the magnetic mill (MM), which has not been used until now in the enrichment of mineral raw materials. The importance of introducing for the difficult to treat middlings a separate flotation in a flotation machine characterized by a high dynamics of the process was emphasized.

The possibilities of metals recovery from copper ores with the biotechnological methods are widely known. The methods consist in bioleaching of copper ores, copper concentrates and byproducts of their production, as well as metals recovery from leaching solutions. Biohydrometallurgical methods were tested for years to be applied at KGHM Polska Miedź S.A., in order to improve efficiency of copper production. Several different research units worked on the topic, and the most significant and wide range initiatives in this area are mentioned in this article. One of the initiatives is an ongoing German and French Ecometals project. KGHM Polska Miedź S.A. and KGHM Cuprum Ltd. Research and Development Centre are this project Partners. In the frame of the project different metals bearing materials (ores, concentrates and tailings) are tested. Among them three lithological types of the copper ore from Rudna mine and the copper concentrate from Lubin concentrator are used for studies. The article gives a general overview of these activities, with the main focus on results of bioleaching studies of selected materials, conducted by KGHM Cuprum. In these studies sandstone and shale, as well as so called “shale concentrate” (containing 39% of the shale) were used for experiments, and possibilities of their bioleaching were evaluated.

The Żelazny Most Tailings Storage Facility (TSF) is currently the sole site for the deposition of tailings generated from the flotation process of copper ore, which is extracted by KGHM Polska Miedź. The Żelazny Most TSF was commissioned in 1977. At the present time, the Tailings Storage Facility (TSF) occupies an area of 1638 ha having an embankment perimeter of 14.3 km, making it one of the largest tailings facilities in Europe. The current height of the embankments range from 40 to 71.5 m (maximum crest elevation is 182.5 m asl) and approximately 600 million m3 of tailings have already been deposited within the facility to date. Currently, the Żelazny Most TSF is being raised up to an elevation of 195 m asl. As a result, it will be capable of storing 770 million m3 of tailings by 2037. Since 2008, KGHM has been preparing conceptual studies of future tailings storage methodology to ensure deposition until 2042 (1 billion m3). With having a focus on safety and the environment, it was concluded that the future development of the Żelazny Most TSF will be carried out by constructing the Southern Extension (609 ha) adjoining the Main Structure to the south. DHV Hydroprojekt and KGHM have performed several studies focused on the construction methodology of the embankments for the new Southern Extension. The conclusion of these studies is to convert the tailings disposal from unthickened upstream spigotting construction, to thickened tailings deposition. Under this scenario, part of tailings would by segregated by means of hydrocyclones, allowing the coarse fraction to be used for downstream embankment construction and the fine fraction thickened and deposited in the central section of the Southern Extension. This paper presents the development of the Żelazny Most TSF facility to date and the options studied as part of the Southern Extension development and migration to thickened tailings storage.

The use of quebracho extract as a pyrite depressing agent to improve Cu/Fe ratio in copper minerals flotation was studied. The depressing effect in the case of pure pyrite, pure chalcopyrite and a sample of disseminated copper ore was tested considering different pH values and modifiers, and different levels of tannin addition. Results show that quebracho extract can be considered a cleaner option in these processes.

In this work, a comprehensive model structure for froth flotation is developed by linking the compartment model (Savassi, 2005) to a set of phenomenological models describing the froth recovery, the water recovery and the entrainment factor. This model structure is successfully calibrated against experimental data from a pilot plant campaign with a copper ore.

This article discusses issues related to the impact of the high pressure comminution process on the efficiency of the copper ore flotation operations. HPGR technology improves the efficiency of mineral resource enrichment through a better liberation of useful components from waste rock as well as more efficient comminution of the material. Research programme included the run of a laboratory flotation process for HPGR crushing products at different levels of operating pressures and moisture content. The test results showed that products of the high-pressure grinding rolls achieved better recoveries in flotation processes and showed a higher grade of useful components in the flotation concentrate, in comparison to the ball mill products. Upgrading curves have also been marked in the following arrangement: the content of useful component in concentrate the floatation recovery. All upgrading curves for HPGR products had a more favourable course in comparison to the curves of conventionally grinded ore. The results also indicate that various values of flotation recoveries have been obtained depending on the machine operating parameters (i.e. the operating pressure), and selected feed properties (moisture).

The copper ore, which has fine-grained nature and differences in the degree of mineral dissemination, is a kind of low grade sulfide minerals. Tests indicate that not only the grinding fineness but also the combination mode of depressants is one of the most important factors to improve the concentrate grade index. Additionally, according to tests conducted with dosage of lime, the rougher flotation should be operated at a pH of 11. Furthermore, all the depressants used were effective to increase the concentrate grade. By the closed-circuit micro-flotation experiment, satisfied grade index (18.7%Cu with 81% recovery) of the final concentrate was achieved, which could provide reference in industrial applications.

Flotation experimental research is carried out on a certain sulphide copper ore of Sifangjing in Huidong, Sichuan province. The ore exist in the deeper part of ore deposit. Because of the deep burried, the oxidation rate is relatively low. The ore belongs to the typical sulfide ore. For the characteristics of the mine and the scene of the test requirements, the use of direct flotation process has achieved a successful recovery of copper. In the cleaning operation ,Strengthen copper sulfur separation to obtain qualified copper concentrate. Under the proper process conditions ,the good technical indexes were obtained.

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was evaluated as a technique that can facilitate identification of potential environmental hazards associated with mining and ore processing as well as provide quantitative evaluation of the economic potential intrinsic to a mineral deposit. Four different geological samples were analyzed using energy dispersive XRF to demonstrate the utility of the technique. The samples were obtained from Dutsen Wai, Birnin Gwari, Dan Sadau, and Talata Mafara, Nigeria. Wolframite, molybdenum, lead and copper ore were analyzed respectively. Wolframite ore contained 61.93% WO3, molybdenum ore contained 16.0% MoO3, lead ore contained 83.1% PbO, and copper ore contained 23.26% CuO. Key words: Geochemistry, hazards, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Nigeria, mining, lead.

Mining investment decisions for giant mining projects involve an enormous financial risk. Nevertheless, traditional risk evaluation methods are based on Monte Carlo simulation of cash flows and are of little value for risk management. In most mining project scenarios, the main sources of risk are those related to the evaluation of the ore body, specially the grade of the ore reserves. In this study, a new risk management methodology based on conditional simulation is developed to quantify the risk associated with uncertainty on the grade of the ore body. The methodology allows for quantifying risk for each period in the production plan and, therefore, it may be used as a powerful risk management tool to identify risk and ‘risk reduction’ objectives at the prefeasibility stages of a mining project. This model is validated by its application in a case study of a real copper ore body in Chile.

Vertimill™ has been used in regrind circuits during the past years due to its greater efficiency when compared to the conventional tube ball mill. This paper presents the Vertimill™ pilot grinding tests with a sample of copper ore carried out in closed circuit with a high frequency screen. The sample was crushed 100% to

The copper ore mining in Bor was started at the beginning of the twentieth century. Parallel to this, the ore smelting was carried out in the first period. After construction of the Flotation Plant (1934), the ore dressing was performed and obtaining the concentrate of copper and precious metals. Until the 60's of the last century, the ore processing, obtained from exploitation from the copper deposits Bor (the Old Open Pit and underground mine Jama Bor), was carried out. After this period of ore obtained from the Bor mine, the ore from the deposit Lipa, Cerovo (Mali Krivelj) was also processed. Technogenic waste of flotation was obtained as by-product of this process by flotation that was disposed from 1934 to 1980 in the area of the Old Flotation Tailing Dump in Bor (Field 1 and Field 2). Based on the previous geological explorations in the mentioned zone, the increased copper contents were indicated in the subject area. The implementation of detailed geological explorations would evalu- ate the potentiality of the area, in order to review the possibilities of raw material leaching, as well as solving a serious environmental problem in the center of the town of Bor.

A copper dressing plant in Jiangxi province of China deals with raw ore in the capacity of 185,000 t/a, and its copper recovery is 86.5% while 13.5% copper still remained in tailings, and a considerable amount of copper is lost in coarse particles tailings. Coarse particles with large size and big mass are very easily detached from bubbles in flotation process, so it is difficult for the plant to use original flotation process and equipments to deal with copper ore. To recycle copper from tailings produced by original flotation circuit, laboratorial experiments were carried out, and then recycle system for that tailing was established and two steps beneficiation process was determined. The first step beneficiation only include one rougher bank, and two sets of CGF-40 flotation cells specially designed by BGRIMM(Beijing General Research of Mining and Metallurgy) for coarse mineral particles were used. The second step beneficiation consisted of one rougher bank, one scavenger bank and two cleaner banks, which is designed to further process froth product from step one. Based on that recycle system, the effect of the reagent and the operation parameters on flotation results was also investigated. The industrial test result shows that the copper recovery of entire recycle system is above 20% while the copper grade of 0.3% (equivalent to copper grade of raw ore). It is estimated that 3,000 tons of copper would be recycled per year using this flotation technique.

Bor is otherwise a typical mining town, founded by the mine. Continued economic activity in the dominant area of extractive industry, related to the copper ore mining and processing, then for metallurgy and complementary industrial activities, what is of great importance for the town and the municipality. The northern part of the Timok magmatic complex and the Bor metallogenic zone, or the Bor mining region, covers the area in which the most significant ore fields are Bor, Veliki Krivelj Cerovo, Majdanpek, Blagojev Kamen and others. The largest technogenic formations were separated in the immediate vicinity of the Bor and Krivelj mine, and they are presented by formations originated by exploitation of mineral copper deposits (overburden) and mineral processing (flotation tailing dumps) in the immediate vicinity of Bor. Designed exploration works in the area of environmental inactive mining field were aimed to prepare the conditions for environment management, remediation of tailing dumps and landfills for disposal of mining waste in the Bor mining areas as well as the rehabilitation of ecological problems in the ore region of Bor. Exploration works included the study of the field: for disposal the tailings from Veliki Krivelj area of the Old Bor Tailing Dump (East), Saraka overburden dump, south-eastern overburden dump and RTH.

Nuclear resonance methods, including Mossbauer spectroscopy,are considered as unique techniques suitable for remote on-line mineralogical analysis. The employment of these methods provides potentially significant commercial benefits for mining industry. As applied to copper sulfide ores, Mossbauer spectroscopy method is suitable for the analysis noted. Bornite (formally Cu5FeS4) is a significant part of copper ore and identification of its properties is important for economic exploitation of commercial copper ore deposits. A series of natural bornite samples was studied by 57Fe Mossbauer spectroscopy. Two aspects were considered: reexamination of 57Fe Mossbauer properties of natural bornite samples and their stability irrespective of origin and potential use of miniaturized Mossbauer spectrometers MIMOS II for in-situ bornite identification. The results obtained show a number of potential benefits of introducing the available portative Mossbauer equipment into the mining industry for express mineralogical analysis. In addition, results of some preliminary 63,65Cu nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) studies of bornite are reported and their merits with Mossbauer techniques for bornite detection discussed.

With the continuous utilization of resources, the ore characteristics of "poor, fine and complex" emerge continuously, in order to take a comprehensive utilization of resources, it is necessary to match classification. This paper analyzes a copper mine in Shandong province , China, which belongs to the veinlet-disseminated copper ore, with mineral distributes comparison fine, and sulfide ore that is easy to floating content less, this requires the ore should be grinding fine to classification, but not the more fine the better, the sampling experiment studies also confirmed this argument, found that the concentrate recovery of flotation is actually equal to intermediate level rate.

The mining complex Chuquicamata, of the National Copper Corporation of Chile (CODELCO), is located in the Atacama Desert, 1, 650 km north of Santiago, and 2, 870 m above sea level. Since the large copper ore reserve that lies below the “Chuquicamata” open pit (Fig. 1) will no longer be economically feasible to mine from the end of this decade, the mine is currently developing the required infrastructure to switch the operation to an underground mine type, where the block caving method with macro-blocks will be used to mine out copper ore. The future mine will count with four production levels, corresponding to one of the largest underground mining operations in the world, with a production rate of about 140, 000 t/d. This article presents design aspects of the permanent underground infra-structure works, which encompass several deep and steep tunnels and vertical shafts for the future mine access and operation. Der Bergbaukomplex Chuquicamata der National Copper Corporation of Chile (CODELCO) liegt in der Atacama-Wuste, 1.650 km nordlich von Santiago und 2.870 m uber dem Meeresspiegel (Bild 1). Ab Ende dieses Jahrzehnts wird der Abbau der Lagerstatte im Tagebau nicht mehr wirtschaftlich sein. Daher werden derzeit die notwendigen Infrastrukturanlagen errichtet, um den Betrieb auf Untertagebau umzustellen, wobei das Kupferz im Blockbruchbau mit Makro-Blocken abgebaut werden soll.? Das Bergwerk wird kunftig uber vier Produktionsebenen verfugen und mit einer Produktion von etwa 140.000 t/d zu einem der grosten Bergwerken der Welt zahlen. Dieser Beitrag stellt einige Planungsgesichtspunkte fur die dauerhafte unterirdische Infrastruktur vor, die mehrere tiefliegende und steile Tunnel und Vertikalschachte fur die Erschliesung der Lagerstatte und den Betrieb des Bergwerks umfasst.