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While field experiments are valuable in their ability to objectively analyse patterns of discrimination, research that focuses on reducing discrimination is systematically lacking. The present study addresses this gap. Building on both cognitive and behavioural processes that steer discriminatory decision-making and insights from diversity literature, we develop and test the effectiveness of a training intervention which is tailored to the specific context of the housing market, with 113 students in real estate. We develop our training around three theoretical mechanisms of discrimination that are measured through a specified vignette experiment in pre- and post-tests. Our results show a reduction in statistical and customer taste-based discrimination after the training, but no change in agent taste-based discrimination. The driver for this reduction in discrimination is being more selective on majority candidates rather than increasing the chances of ethnic minority candidates. Additionally, we found that training has no effect on taste and that most of these effects remain present on the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we introduce a critical assessment of methodological assumptions made by researchers when using correspondence tests to measure ethnic discrimination. We aim to investigate whether (1) the order in which the applications are sent out, between the test and control person, (2) the conducted matched triad tests, in comparison to matched duo tests, and (3) the timing of application within the week, have an effect on discrimination rates. For this purpose, we made use of 2.984 matched correspondence tests across Flanders, the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium. Our findings suggest that the correspondence tests are rather robust for the variability in methodology. While these different methodological choices do affect the general invitation rates, they do not affect discrimination rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to identify rental discrimination on the Flemish rental housing market in Belgium, taking the intersectional nature of discrimination into account. Most discrimination studies focus on unequal access based on one individual discrimination ground. This practice eludes the context of the other discrimination grounds in which rental discrimination occurs and neglects the intersectional nature of discrimination. We therefore conducted 8.245 correspondence tests in almost all municipalities in Flanders, the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium. We apply an intersectional lens, by considering the relation and interaction between gender (male/female), ethnic origin (Moroccan/Polish) and the homogeneity of names (homogenous/mixed). We find four strata of rental discrimination, in which Moroccan female rental candidates with a homogenous name experience most discrimination, indicating that multiple categorical identities enforce each other. Without a full intersectional approach, these layered patterns of exclusion would have been hidden behind the bold boundaries of ethnic or gender categorizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introducing a new method, we measure real estate agents' intentions to act upon a discriminatory request on the housing market. Our results show that realtors are willing to discriminate on request and that the method of mystery mails allows scholars to measure and contextualize these discriminatory intentions in a detailed and elaborate way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Notwithstanding persistent levels of ethnic discrimination on the rental housing market, we have witnessed in many West-European countries a shift from targeted multicultural to colour-blind policies. At the same time, anti-immigration attitudes remained relatively stable. Whether and how these attitudes are translated in support or aversion toward anti-discrimination policies is, however, still unclear. As the first study in Europe we analyse public support for eight policy measures to tackle rental discrimination against ethnic minorities. Based on multilevel analyses among a sample of 899 adults in Belgium, we show that there is large support among the general public for testing, training and campaigning against ethnic discrimination on the housing market. General support for affirmative action measures is, however, much lower. In addition, support for anti-discrimination policies is strongly related to ethnic prejudices. People with more – especially subtle – prejudices are less likely to support policies against rental discrimination. Moreover, prejudices also mediate the effects of interethnic contacts and outgroup size on policy support. Finally, local housing market indicators do not play a significant role in the public support for anti-discrimination policies on the housing market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to investigate to which extent the ethnic and socio-economic composition of the neighbourhood is related to levels of discrimination in the rental housing market and how this is linked to theories of ethnic discrimination. Hereby, we divide the context into the neighbourhood of the dwelling and the real estate agency, using data from 2385 correspondence tests conducted among realtors in the city of Antwerp in Belgium. Regarding the neighbourhood of the dwelling, we find a tipping point at one third ethnic minorities whereafter ethnic discrimination decreases, which is in line with the perceived preference hypothesis and customer-based prejudice. A lower socio-economic composition relates to lower general invitation rates, which we describe as an elaboration of Putnam's hunkering down hypothesis. Regarding the neighbourhood of the real estate agency, a higher percentage of ethnic minorities leads to lower general invitation rates, also referring to the hunkering down hypothesis. The socio-economic neighbourhood composition of the agency, however, has no impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnic discrimination on the housing market has been subject of research for years. While a field experimental approach is widespread, alternative attempts to objectively measure mechanisms of discrimination on the housing market are scarce. In line with labor market research, we stress that to reduce rental discrimination against ethnic minorities, we need understanding its underlying mechanisms. This is the first paper that introduces a vignette experiment to do so. We distinguish between four mechanisms put forward in the literature but hardly ever empirically tested: agent taste-based discrimination, owner taste-based discrimination, neighborhood taste-based discrimination and statistical discrimination, in a multifactorial vignette experiment among 576 pre graduate real estate student. In addition, our experimental design allows us to examine whether unequal treatment is heterogeneous by property owner and neighborhood characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is still little research about the association of anti-immigrant attitudes with ethnic discrimination. In this study we investigate whether there is more rental discrimination against ethnic minorities in Belgian municipalities with more negative attitudes and higher perceived threats toward immigration and refugees. For this purpose, we merged unique data from correspondence tests with the aggregated attitudes in 44 municipalities. There was profound discrimination against candidates with Moroccan names by both private landlords and realtors. In contrast to theoretical expectations there was not more ethnic discrimination in municipalities with more negative attitudes or higher perceived threats. However, it appears that rental candidates – irrespective of their ethnic origin – are less likely to be invited in municipalities with higher threats and more negative attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This explorative study examines the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on ethnic discrimination. By means of 482 pairwise matched correspondence tests in pre-Covid times and 440 tests in Covid times, we examine discrimination against candidates of Maghrebian and Congolese origin on the housing market of a metropolitan city in Belgium. While the absolute invitation rates decreased for both Maghrebian and Belgian candidates at almost the same pace in Covid times, the relative net rate of discrimination of Maghrebian candidates increased significantly from 20% to 36%. With respect to candidates of Congolese origin, the absolute invitation rate only decreased sharply for Belgian candidates but not for Congolese candidates, with declining relative net rates of discrimination from 17% to 6% as a consequence. This suggests that the effect of Covid-19 on discrimination is different for different ethnic groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnic discrimination is very persistent on the rental market. Real estate agents hold a unique position, as the intermediate link between owners with specific (discriminatory) desires on the one hand and rental candidates on the other. By means of the relatively new technique of mystery calls among 400 real estate agents in the Brussels Capital Region in Belgium, this study sheds light on the strategies realtors follow and which justifications they make to comply or oppose to discriminatory requests of owners. It appears that an important share of realtors is willing to act discriminatory upon request. They develop a few strategies to bring discriminatory requests into practice, ranging from straightforward exclusion and discouraging minorities to facilitating discrimination by composing lists of rental candidates. Whereas quantitative analyses showed some variance in discriminatory intentions according to the ethnic neighbourhood composition, which is in line with the neighbour taste-based discrimination theory, qualitative analyses especially revealed justifications which confirm the owner taste-based discrimination reasoning. Moreover, realtors underscored the "economic rationality" of owner taste-based discrimination. In addition, realtors also referred to ideas of statistical discrimination by making distinctions between "good" and "bad" ethnic minority groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although studies have shown ethnic discrimination in the sharing economy, there is surprisingly little research about discrimination on Airbnb. As the first correspondence study after the anti-discrimination directive launched by Airbnb in 2016, we examine to which extent there is still ethnic discrimination against guests on Airbnb. We conducted 1043 correspondence tests on the Airbnb platform in Belgium during the Covid-summer of 2021. Guests with Moroccan-sounding names have 6.9% lower acceptance rates than those with Belgian-sounding names, while there is no discrimination against guests of Polish origin. Non-professional Airbnb hosts tend to discriminate much less than professional hosts. The ethnic difference in acceptance rates between Belgian and Moroccan guests accrues to 14.7% among professional hosts, while there is no discrimination by non-professional hosts. Moreover, revealing the vaccination status of the guest does not impact the level of discrimination. These findings suggest that the anti-discrimination policy of Airbnb is insufficient. • We conducted 1043 correspondence tests on the Airbnb platform in Belgium during the Covid-summer of 2021. • Guests with Moroccan-sounding names have 6.9% lower acceptance rates than those with Belgian-sounding names, while there is no discrimination against guests of Polish origin. • The ethnic difference in acceptance rates between Belgian and Moroccan guests accrues to 14.7% among professional hosts, while there is no ethnic difference among non-professional hosts. • This study demonstrates that the Instant book function, which Airbnb introduced in 2016 to inhibit discrimination and bias in the personal selection on Airbnb, is to some extent effective to mitigate discrimination. • These findings suggest that the anti-discrimination policy of Airbnb is insufficient to tackle ethnic discrimination on the platform. More is needed to eradicate discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There is big contextual variation in ethnic and gender discrimination in a metropolitan city. • Big and more female centered real estate offices tend to discriminate less. • Poorer neighborhoods and neighborhoods with more ethnic minorities show less ethnic discrimination in a city. Ethnic discrimination proves to be a persistent problem on the private rental market. However, little attention has been paid to contexts that might impact discrimination on the housing market, partly due to the fact that these factors have not been integrated into a comprehensive study. We aim to investigate whether the types of discriminatory behavior vary and/or are moderated by three types of contextual factors: (1) dwelling indicators, such as type of dwelling and price category; (2) neighborhood indicators, such as socioeconomic and ethnic composition of the neighborhood; and – to the best of our knowledge the first time in research - (3) real estate agency indicators, such as the gender structure and size of the agency. For this purpose, we made use of data from 2,014 matched correspondence tests on ethnic discrimination among 493 real estate agencies in Brussels Capital Region in Belgium. Our findings suggest that candidates of North African origin face discrimination when searching for an apartment to rent. We also found that discrimination is lower in poorer and more ethnically mixed neighborhoods and higher in smaller and male-dominated real estate offices. We call for a bigger focus on both spatial and organizational context in research on discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]