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Background: Depression is a global burden with profound personal and economic consequences. Previous studies have reported that the amount of physical activity is associated with depression. However, the relationship between the temporal patterns of physical activity and depressive symptoms is poorly understood. In this exploratory study, we hypothesize that a particular temporal pattern of daily physical activity could be associated with depressive symptoms and might be a better marker than the total amount of physical activity., Methods: To address the hypothesis, we investigated the association between depressive symptoms and daily dominant activity behaviors based on 24-h temporal patterns of physical activity. We conducted a cross-sectional study on NHANES 2011-2012 data collected from the noninstitutionalized civilian resident population of the United States. The number of participants that had the whole set of physical activity data collected by the accelerometer is 6613. Among 6613 participants, 4242 participants had complete demography and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) questionnaire, a tool to quantify depressive symptoms. The association between activity-count behaviors and depressive symptoms was analyzed using multivariable logistic regression to adjust for confounding factors in sequential models., Results: We identified four physical activity-count behaviors based on five physical activity-counting patterns classified by unsupervised machine learning. Regarding PHQ-9 scores, we found that evening dominant behavior was positively associated with depressive symptoms compared to morning dominant behavior as the control group., Conclusions: Our results might contribute to monitoring and identifying individuals with latent depressive symptoms, emphasizing the importance of nuanced activity patterns and their probability of assessing depressive symptoms effectively., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Exercise can alter the composition of gut microbiota. However, studies examining the effects of exercise on gut microbiota in the elderly are lacking. This study aims to investigate whether an 8-week exercise training affect gut microbiota in physically inactive elderly women. Fourteen women were randomly assigned to either exercise group or control group. Repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to reveal changes in gut microbiota. Alpha diversity did not change significantly. A tendency to form 2 clusters was observed for operational taxonomic units (OTU) after intervention. At phylum, class, and order levels, a significant difference was observed between two groups for Fusobacteria (F=5.257, P=0.045), Betaproteobacteria (F=5.149, P=0.047), and Bifidobacteriales (F=7.624, P=0.020). A significant interaction was observed between two groups for Actinobacteria (F=8.434, P=0.016). At family and genus levels, a significant main effect of groups was observed in Bifidobacteriaceae (F=7.624, P=0.020), Bifidobacterium (F=7.404, P=0.022), and Gemmiger (F=5.881, P=0.036). These findings indicate that an 8-week exercise training may induce partial changes in relative abundance and OTU clustering of gut microbiota in physically inactive elderly women. Also, exercise may increase the abundance of bacteria associated with anti-inflammation such as Verrucomicrobia, reduce the abundance of bacteria associated with pro-inflammation such as Proteobacteria., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Although maintaining cardiorespiratory fitness is encouraged to reduce the risk of hypertension, the level at, and length of time for which, individuals need to maintain fitness remains unclear. We examined the association between the frequency of achieving the recommended fitness levels of the 'Physical Activity Reference for Health Promotion 2013' and the risk of hypertension among Japanese men., Methods: This cohort study was conducted in 6653 men without hypertension enrolled in 1986. Whether the participants' fitness level was equal to or exceeded the reference value (fit) or not (unfit) was determined. The frequency of achieving the recommended fitness level was calculated by counting the number of times the fitness level was achieved in 1980 through 1986. Incident hypertension was defined as the first visit with a SBP/DBP of at least 140/90 mmHg or self-reported antihypertensive medication use and was evaluated during annual health examinations from 1986 until 2009., Results: During the follow-up period, 3630 men developed hypertension. The multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios (95% confidence interval) for incident hypertension comparing men with fit versus unfit at baseline was 0.79 (0.74-0.85). Moreover, the frequency of achieving the recommended fitness level was inversely associated with the incidence of hypertension. The risk of hypertension was lower among those who achieved three or more of the recommended levels (0.72 for three times to 0.62 for seven times)., Conclusion: Achieving the fitness level recommended in the Japanese guideline three or more times during a 6-year period can be beneficial for the risk reduction of hypertension.

In this consensus statement on immunonutrition and exercise, a panel of knowledgeable contributors from across the globe provides a consensus of updated science, including the background, the aspects for which a consensus actually exists, the controversies and, when possible, suggested directions for future research., (Copyright © 2016 International Society of Exercise and Immunology. All rights reserved.)

CXC-chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) and its ligand, stromal-derived factor 1α (SDF-1α; also known as CXCL12), are crucial for the redistribution of immune cells after acute exercise. We investigated the relationships between acute exercise and CXCR4 expression on natural killer (NK) cells. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were cultured with cortisol and analyzed for CXCR4 expression on CD3(-)/CD56(+) NK cells and NK cell migration activity. To determine the effect of exercise, we isolated PBMCs from subjects before and after a 90-min exercise at 70% peak O2 uptake (V̇o2peak) and determined the changes in CXCR4 expression on NK cells after exercise. We cultured PBMCs with plasma obtained before and after exercise and with the glucocorticoid antagonist RU-486 to determine NK cell migration activity and the effects of cortisol on CXCR4 expression in vitro. Cortisol treatment increased CXCR4 expression (P < 0.05) and migration activity (P < 0.05) of NK cells. Exercise did not affect CXCR4 expression on NK cells, whereas incubating them with postexercise plasma significantly increased CXCR4 expression (P < 0.05) and migration activity (P < 0.05). RU-486 blocked cortisol-induced CXCR4 upregulation on NK cells, but only partially blocked (7%) CXCR4 upregulation when PMBCs were incubated with postexercise plasma. Thus acute exercise increases CXCR4 expression on NK cells and their migration activity and may contribute to NK cell redistribution after acute exercise; however, cortisol did not appear to be the primary mediator of augmented CXCR4 expression., (Copyright © 2014 the American Physiological Society.)

Although there is ample evidence supporting the effectiveness of physical activity in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, there are no previous studies to examine the effect of office-based brief high-impact exercise (HIE) on bone mineral density (BMD) in healthy premenopausal women. This study evaluated the effects of office-based HIE on BMD in healthy premenopausal Japanese women. Ninety-one healthy premenopausal women were randomized to receive stretching exercise (SE) or HIE (stretching, along with up to 5 × 10 vertical and versatile jumps) for 12 months. The BMD of the lumbar spine and proximal femur was measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Several cardiovascular risk factors and leg strength also were assessed. An accelerometer-based recorder was used to measure daily impact loading in four 1-week samples. The progression of the HIE program was ensured by the accelerometer. Thirty-three women (71.7%) in the SE group and 34 (75.6%) in the HIE group completed the study. There was a significant difference in the change in the femoral neck BMD between the groups in favor of the HIE group [0.6% (95% CI: -0.4, 1.7) vs. -1.0% (95% CI: -2.2, 0.2)]. Adiponectin, LDL, HDL, and the leg strength of participants in both the groups improved during the intervention. These finding suggested that office-based brief HIE can be recommended for premenopausal women for preventing bone mineral loss.

Aim: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a community-based group exercise program on physical functioning among elderly people., Methods: This prospective observational study enrolled 494 persons aged 70-84 years who volunteered for the study and completed a baseline measurement in 2006 and were re-evaluated 1 year later in 2007. The exercise regimen consisted of resistance training and recreational exercise for 1.5 hours conducted twice a month. Physical functioning was evaluated by a self-administered questionnaire consisting of the Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology Index of Competence (TMIG-IC) and Motor Fitness Scale (MFS). Decline in physical functioning was defined as a reduction in either TMIG-IC or MFS scores of more than 2 points deviation from the median change of each score., Results: TMIG-IC and MFS results were obtained from 494 and 392 eligible subjects, respectively. After 1 year, 68 subjects (TMIG-IC) and 88 subjects (MFS) reported a decline in physical functioning. After adjustment for confounding factors, the odds ratio of reduced physical functioning, as assessed by the TMIG-IC among the subjects who did not participate in the exercise group and those who did, were 1.00 (control) and 0.15 (95% confidence interval, 0.01-0.75). Similar results were obtained when assessed on the MFS., Conclusion: These results suggest that participation in a community-based exercise group of elderly people was effective in maintaining self-reported physical function.

Skeletal muscle glucose uptake closely reflects muscle activity at exercise intensity levels <55% of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max). Our purpose was to evaluate individual skeletal muscle activity from glucose uptake in humans during pedaling exercise at different workloads by using [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) and positron emission tomography (PET). Twenty healthy male subjects were divided into two groups (7 exercise subjects and 13 control subjects). Exercise subjects were studied during 35 min of pedaling exercise at 40 and 55% VO2max exercise intensities. FDG was injected 10 min after the start of exercise or after 20 min of rest. PET scanning of the whole body was conducted after completion of the exercise or rest period. In exercise subjects, mean FDG uptake [standardized uptake ratio (SUR)] of the iliacus muscle and muscles of the anterior part of the thigh was significantly greater than uptake in muscles of control subjects. At 55% VO2max exercise, SURs of the iliacus muscle and thigh muscles, except for the rectus femoris, increased significantly compared with SURs at 40% VO2max exercise. Our results are the first to clarify that the iliacus muscle, as well as the muscles of the anterior thigh, is the prime muscle used during pedaling exercise. In addition, the iliacus muscle and all muscles in the thigh, except for the rectus femoris, contribute when the workload of the pedaling exercise increases from 40 to 55% VO2max.

Our purpose was to evaluate the effects of exercise intensities on free fatty acid (FFA) uptake in skeletal muscles, myocardium and liver among humans using (123)I-labeled 15-(p-iodophenyl)-3-(R,S)-methyl-pentadecanoic acid ((123)I-BMIPP) and single photon emission computed tomography technique (SPECT). Six untrained male subjects were studied after 35 min of ergometer bicycle exercise at 40, 70 and 80% maximal aerobic power (VO(2max)) One subject was studied as resting control. SPECT scan was done 40 min after (123)I-BMIPP injection. Mean fractional uptake (FU) in quadriceps femoris muscle (QF) were 0.029 +/- 0.001, 0.029 +/- 0.002 and 0.025 +/- 0.002% at 40, 70 and 80% VO(2max), respectively. FU of QF at 40 and 70% VO(2max) were significantly higher than those of 80% VO(2max). Mean FU into myocardium were 0.048 +/- 0.002, 0.052 +/- 0.004 and 0.050 +/- 0.003% and those in liver were 0.033 +/- 0.002, 0.032 +/- 0.002 and 0.034 +/- 0.003% at each loads, respectively. Any significant changes were not suggestive in liver and myocardium after exercise. Mean FU (the mean values of all exercise intensity) at exercise is 2.86, 0.96 and 0.71 times higher than those at rest in QF, myocardium and liver. These results suggest: (1) in skeletal muscles, energy requirements at above lactate threshold at high exercise intensity predominantly depend upon other intramuscular energy substrates, (2) there is possibility of energy compensation by other substrates in myocardium at higher exercise intensity, (3) FFA uptake in liver might decrease after exercise; however, the influence of exercise intensities is not suggested.

We investigated the effect of 25 wk of exercise training on in vivo immune measures that depend on T helper 1 (Th1) and T helper 2 (Th2) immune responses in the elderly as a substudy of a randomized controlled trial to investigate health benefits of regular exercise training for the elderly. Sixty-five healthy elderly volunteers were randomly assigned to either an exercise training group (n = 32) or a sedentary control group (n = 33). The area of skin reaction to purified protein derivative (PPD) of tuberculin that depends on Th1 activation and the concentrations of serum IgG subclasses and IgE were evaluated before and after 25-wk intervention. All participants completed 25 wk of training. Thirty-one participants of the exercise group and all control group underwent immunological analyses, but only 30 from the exercise group and 21 from the control group had the PPD skin reaction assessment. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a significant interaction between time and exercise intervention, which appeared as an enhanced skin reaction to tuberculin PPD (P < 0.05) and a reduced serum IgG4 concentration, the production of which depends on Th2-dependent class switching (P < 0.05), in the exercise group after 25 wk. No immune variables changed in the control group. These result supports the hypothesis that exercise training favors in vivo Th1 immune response in elderly persons.

The circulating number of natural killer (NK) cells largely changes after an acute bout of physical exercise. Granulysin is a cytolytic granule protein with a broad range of antimicrobial and tumoricidal activities produced and released by human NK cells and cytolytic T lymphocytes. Since NK cells constitutively produce granulysin, most serum granulysin in healthy humans is derived from NK cells. Serum graulysin levels in the healthy humans may therefore reflect the size of whole-body NK cell population in the body. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of an acute bout of exhaustive exercise on serum granulysin in comparison with the circulating number of NK cells. Six healthy, young male volunteers participated in the study. Each subject underwent both exhaustive exercise and resting sessions in a random order with at least a seven-day interval. Subjects were asked to run to exhaustion on a treadmill with an incremental graded protocol. Blood samples were collected before, immediately after, and 1 hr, 3 hr, 6 hr, 12 hr and 24 hr after exercise. Serum granulysin levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). NK cells were determined by flow cytometry. Exhaustive exercise induced a 4.8-fold increase in peripheral blood NK cells, but no significant change in serum granulysin. Our results support the hypothesis that exhaustive exercise-induced changes in the circulating number of NK cells represent a redistribution of lymphocytes, rather than the change in the size of whole-body NK cell population.

The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanism responsible for lymphopenia after exercise. Seven young healthy men volunteered for this study. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were cultured with cortisol and analyzed for C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) expression by flow cytometry. To determine the effects of exercise, subjects performed exhaustive cycling exercise. PBMC were cultured with plasma obtained before and after the cycling exercise. Alternatively, PBMC obtained before and after exercise were cultured without plasma or glucocorticoid to examine whether PBMC were primed in vivo for CXCR4 expression. We analyzed cortisol- or plasma-treated PBMC to determine their ability to migrate through membrane filters in response to stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha/CXCL12. Cortisol dose- and time-dependently augmented CXCR4 expression on T lymphocytes, with <6 h of treatment sufficient to augment CXCR4 on T lymphocytes. Postexercise plasma also augmented CXCR4 expression. Cortisol or postexercise plasma treatment markedly enhanced migration of T lymphocytes toward CXCL12. Augmentation of CXCR4 on T lymphocytes by cortisol or plasma was effectively blocked by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU-486. Thus exercise-elicited endogenous cortisol effectively augments CXCR4 expression on T lymphocytes, which may account for lymphopenia after exercise.

Background: Interleukin (IL)-6 is locally produced in skeletal muscles and shows a remarkable increase in plasma after eccentric exercises., Objective: To elucidate the cell types in the muscles responsible for IL-6 production after eccentric exercises., Study Design: Controlled laboratory study., Methods: An eccentric contraction model was made using electrical stimulation. The authors investigated the muscle damage and regeneration processes after eccentric exercises histologically, and the cell types expressing IL-6 and its subcellular compartimentalization with time immunohistochemically after eccentric exercises., Results: Swollen myofibers were detected from 8 hours to 3 days after exercises. Disrupted myofibers were detected from 24 hours to 7 days, with a peak of 3 days. IL-6 was detected only in the cytoplasm of myofibers until 12 hours; thereafter, it was found in the inflammatory cells and proliferating satellite cells as well. The swollen myofibers were negatively stained for IL-6. The positive ratios of IL-6 in myofibers immediately increased after exercises, peaked in 12 hours, and then decreased., Conclusions: After eccentric exercises, IL-6 expression increased in myofibers preceding the disruption of myofibers. IL-6 might be closely related to muscle damage caused by strenuous exercises.

Background: Recent randomized controlled trials indicated that exercise training for elderly significantly increased their physical fitness. However, very few studies have examined changes in physical activity after exercise training. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether six-month exercise training for older adults can increase and maintain their physical activity in daily life., Methods: Sixty-two men and women aged 60 to 81 years (mean age 67.1 years), living in communities, were randomly allocated into an exercise group (n = 32) or a control group (n = 33). The intervention started in April 1998 and lasted for 25 weeks. The exercise regimen consisted of endurance training and resistance exercises in a two-hour class conducted at least twice a week. The subjects completed a physical activity diary at each pre-intervention (March 1998), post-intervention (September 1998) and follow-up (April 1999) measurement of physical activity. Physical activity, expressed as total daily energy expenditure, was calculated by multiplying the amount of time spent in each activity and the corresponding METs., Results: Total daily energy expenditure significantly increased from 40.8 kcal/kg/day to 43.5 kcal/kg/day in the exercise group (p = 0.03), but did not change in the control group. At the follow-up measurement, the mean total daily energy expenditure in the exercise group remained significantly higher, by 1.7 kcal/kg/day, than that at the pre-intervention (p = 0.05)., Conclusions: This randomized controlled trial indicated that exercise training for elderly was effective in increasing physical activity in daily life.

We attempted to visualize dynamic adjustment of glucose utilization in humans in the whole-body organs during physical exercise by using three-dimensional positron emission tomography (3D-PET) and [18F]-2-fluoro-deoxy-glucose (FDG). Twelve healthy male volunteers collaborated on the study; six subjects were assigned to the resting control group (C) and the other six to the running group (E). Group E subjects performed running on a flat road for 35 min. After 15 min of running, subjects injected FDG and kept on running thereafter for another 20 min. Group C subjects sat on a comfortable chair in a quiet room for 35 min after the injection of FDG. After scanning by PET, the regions of interest (ROIs) were manually set on brain, heart, thorax, abdomen, lower extremities, and the rest of the body on the corresponding transaxial images. The uptake of FDG in each region was evaluated as the % fraction of FDG accumulation relative to the total amount of whole-body accumulation. The results revealed increase of FDG uptake after running in the lower leg muscles from 24.6 +/- 9.5% to 43.1 +/- 4.7% and in the heart from 2.3 +/- 0.4% to 2.8 +/- 0.6%. The differences were significant (P < 0.05). These increases reflect the rise in energy consumption in leg and heart muscles and were balanced by the reduction of energy consumption in the other part of the body. FDG uptake in the abdominal region reduced from 37.3 +/- 7.2% to 19.7 +/- 4.9%. However, FDG uptake in the brain remained stable, i.e., 11.9 +/- 2.8% at rest and 10.3 +/- 2.5% after exercise. Thus, 3D-PET is a tool to visualize the dynamic adjustment of energy consumption during physical exercise in humans.

Physical exercise is expected to improve and maintain physical function in older people, thus promoting health and preventing or postponing the onset of disability in later life. The Sendai Silver Center Trial (SSCT) was a randomized controlled trial designed to evaluate the efficacy of exercise training among healthy free-living older people. Sixty-five eligible participants, aged from 60 to 81 years, were randomly allocated to an exercise group or a control group. The subjects in the exercise group were asked to attend training classes at the Sendai Silver Center, a municipal health and welfare facility in the center of Sendai City, at least twice a week for 25 weeks. Each training class, lasting two hours, started with a warm-up session, followed by an endurance session with a bicycle ergometer, and a resistance exercise training session using rubber films, and ended with a cool-down session. The subjects in the control group were asked to attend recreational classes at the Center twice a month. There were no drop-outs or accidents during the intervention. Comparison of maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) before and after the 25-week intervention revealed a significant increase in the exercise group (2.1 ml/kg/min) but no significant change in the control group. Our result is equivalent to the participants becoming younger in aerobic capacity by five years after six months of exercise training.

This review examines the role of the autonomic nervous system in the regulation of the immune system to understand the alteration of immunological parameters under the influence of stressors and exercise. Sympathetic innervation in secondary lymphoid organs plays a major role in immune regulation. Catecholamine released from the nerve terminal serves as the major mediator when bound to adrenergic receptors present on immunocompetent cells. Experiments using chemical and surgical denervation, catecholamine knock-out mice, and receptor antagonist and agonists revealed several important points. Sympathetic nerve activity is generally suppressive for the immunocompetent cells in the blood stream except neutrophils. Sympathetic activity facilitates detachment of T cells and NK cells from blood vessels without affecting functional adhesion molecule expression. Th1 cells express more beta 2 adrenergic receptors than Th2 cells, indicating a greater influence of sympathetic activity on Th1 response. Sympathetic action was also shown to regulate the production of chemokines. Taken together, the sympathetic nervous system does not simply suppress the immune system but might help organize the immune response sequentially and spatially by modulating the distribution of immunocompetent cells.