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The Qiangma gold deposit is hosted in the > 1.9 Ga Taihua Supergroup metamorphic rocks in the Xiaoqinling terrane, Qinling Orogen, on the southern margin of the North China Craton. The mineralization can be divided as follows: quartz-pyrite veins early, quartz-polymetallic sulfide veinlets middle, and carbonate-quartz veinlets late stages, with gold being mainly introduced in the middle stage. Three types of fluid inclusions were identified based on petrography and laser Raman spectroscopy, i.e., pure carbonic, carbonic-aqueous (CO 2 –H 2 O) and aqueous inclusions. The early-stage quartz contains pure carbonic and CO 2 –H 2 O inclusions with salinities up to 12.7 wt.% NaCl equiv., bulk densities of 0.67 to 0.86 g/cm 3 , and homogenization temperatures of 280−365 °C. The early-stage is related to H 2 O–CO 2 ± N 2 ± CH 4 fluids with isotopic signatures consistent with a metamorphic origin (δ 18 O water = 3.1 to 5.2‰, δD = − 37 to − 73‰). The middle-stage quartz contains all three types of fluid inclusions, of which the CO 2 –H 2 O and aqueous inclusions yield homogenization temperatures of 249−346 °C and 230−345 °C, respectively. The CO 2 –H 2 O inclusions have salinities up to 10.9 wt.% NaCl equiv. and bulk densities of 0.70 to 0.98 g/cm 3 , with vapor bubbles composed of CO 2 and N 2 . The isotopic ratios (δ 18 O water = 2.2 to 3.6‰, δD = − 47 to − 79‰) suggest that the middle-stage fluids were mixed by metamorphic and meteoric fluids. In the late-stage quartz only the aqueous inclusions are observed, which have low salinities (0.9−9.9 wt.% NaCl equiv.) and low homogenization temperatures (145−223 °C). The isotopic composition (δ 18 O water = − 1.9 to 0.5‰, δD = − 55 to − 66‰) indicates the late-stage fluids were mainly meteoric water. Trapping pressures estimated from CO 2 –H 2 O inclusions are 100−285 MPa for the middle stage, suggesting that gold mineralization mainly occurred at depths of 10 km. Fluid boiling and mixing caused rapid precipitation of sulfides and native Au. Through boiling and inflow of meteoric water, the ore-forming fluid system evolved from CO 2 -rich to CO 2 -poor in composition, and from metamorphic to meteoric, as indicated by decreasing δ 18 O water values from early to late. The carbon, sulfur and lead isotope compositions suggest the hostrocks within the Taihua Supergroup to be a significant source of ore metals. Integrating the data obtained from the studies including regional geology, ore geology, and fluid inclusion and C–H–O–S–Pb isotope geochemistry, we conclude that the Qiangma gold deposit was an orogenic-type system formed in the tectonic transition from compression to extension during the Jurassic−Early Cretaceous continental collision between the North China and Yangtze cratons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Donggou Mo deposit in the eastern Qinling area, China, is a giant porphyry system discovered based on a targeting concept by using the tectonic model for collisional orogeny, metallogeny and fluid flow (CMF model). Mo mineralization is associated with the Donggou aluminous A-type granite porphyry and was formed during the Early Cretaceous in a tectonic regime of continental extension. The orebodies mainly occur as numerous veinlets in the host-rocks. Hydrothermal ore-forming processes include at least three stages, characterized by veinlets of (1) quartz + K-feldspar + minor molybdenite, (2) quartz + molybdenite ± beryl and (3) quartz + carbonate + fluorite. Three types of fluid inclusions (FIs) are distinguished in quartz and beryl in stages 1 and 2, i.e., aqueous (W-type), carbonic–aqueous (C-type) and solid-bearing (S-type), with only aqueous FIs observed in stage 3 minerals. S-type FIs contain variable daughter minerals including halite, chalcopyrite, calcite and an unidentified transparent crystal, but only halite can dissolve during heating. Halite-bearing S-type FIs are mainly homogenized by halite dissolution at 182–416 °C, corresponding to salinities of 30.9–49.2 wt.% NaCl equiv.; minor halite-bearing S-type FIs are homogenized to liquid at 190–360 °C via vapor disappearance, with salinities of 29.1–36.2 wt.% NaCl equiv. Other FIs in minerals of stages 1, 2 and 3 are homogenized at temperatures of 341–550 °C, 220–440 °C and 125–225 °C, with salinities of 8.0–18.3, 5.3–16.8 and 0.5–7.3 wt.% NaCl equiv., respectively. The estimated minimum trapping pressures are up to 141 MPa in stage 1 and up to 81 MPa in stage 2, respectively, corresponding to an initial mineralization depth of no less than 5 km. The quartz in veinlets yields δ 18 O values of 8.5–10.0‰, corresponding to δ 18 O H 2 O values of − 2.9 to 5.9‰, while the δD H 2 O values of fluid inclusions range from − 59 to − 82‰. These data suggest that the ore fluids forming the Donggou deposit changed from high-temperature, high-salinity, CO 2 -rich magmatic to low-temperature, low-salinity and CO 2 -poor meteoritic fluids via boiling and mixing, resembling those of other magmatic–hydrothermal systems in Qinling Orogen and Dabie Shan. This supports the notion that the porphyry systems generated in a post-collisional tectonic setting were initially CO 2 -rich, as indicated by abundant C-type and CO 2 -bearing S-type fluid inclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Wenyu giant gold deposit is hosted in the Precambrian Taihua Supergroup metamorphic rocks within the Xiaoqinling terrane (Qinling Orogen), on the southern margin of the North China Craton. The mineralization can be divided into three stages: quartz–pyrite veins early, quartz–sulfide veins middle (main), and carbonate–quartz veinlets late, with gold being mainly introduced in main stage. Quartz formed in two earlier stages contains three compositional types of fluid inclusions, i.e. pure CO2, CO2–H2O and NaCl–H2O, but the late-stage minerals only contain the NaCl–H2O inclusions. The inclusions in quartz formed in the early, main and late stages yield total homogenization temperatures of 262–417°C, 236–407°C and 114–239°C, respectively, with salinities no higher than 13wt.% NaCl equiv. Trapping pressures estimated from CO2–H2O inclusions are 139–399MPa and 111–316MPa in the early and main stages, corresponding to mineralization depths of 14km and 11km, respectively. Fluid boiling and mixing caused rapid precipitation of sulfides and native Au. Through boiling and inflow of meteoric water, the ore-forming fluid system evolved from CO2-rich to CO2-poor in composition, and from metamorphic to meteoric, as indicated by decreasing δ18Owater values from early to late. The carbon, sulfur and lead isotope compositions suggest the hostrocks within the Taihua Supergroup to be a significant source of ore metals. Integrating the data obtained from the studies including regional geology, ore geology, fluid inclusion and C–H–O–S–Pb isotope geochemistry, we conclude that the Wenyu gold deposit was an orogenic-type system formed in the tectonic transition from compression to extension during the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous continental collision between the North China and Yangtze Cratons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Xunyang Hg-Sb orefield, Shaanxi Province, containing two large (Gongguan and Qingtonggou) and tens of small to medium Hg-Sb deposits, is located in the southern Qinling Orogen. Ore bodies of the deposits are hosted in Devonian dolomite and controlled by a fault system. Ores are mainly present as massive veins, disseminations, breccias and fine veinlets, with cinnabar (Hg) and stibnite (Sb) being the dominant ore minerals. Gangue minerals include quartz, calcite and dolomite. Hydrothermal minerals (quartz and calcite) only contain aqueous fluid inclusions with low homogenization temperature (135-274 °C) and salinity (1.23-12.3 wt.% NaCl equiv.), supporting an epizonogenic hydrothermal origin. The carbon, oxygen and hydrogen isotope data indicate that the ore-forming fluids were mainly sourced from epizonogenic to metamorphic devolatilization of the Sinian−Triassic strata that possibly underthrusted beneath the orefield, with inflow of the circulating meteoric water. Sulphur isotope ratios of stibnite and cinnabar range from 2‰ to 12‰, suggesting a contribution from sedimentary sulphate or sulphate-bearing fluids potted in strata, which is coincident with the δ34S values (3.4-8.6‰) of diagenetic pyrite in the strata. The conclusion drawn from sulphur isotopes is fully supported by the Pb isotope signatures. In addition, the 87Sr/86Sr ratios gradationally increase from ore-hosting dolostones, through ore-barren calcite or low-grade ores, to high-grade ores, indicating that a portion of the fluids originated from a source with higher 87Sr/86Sr values than the host-rocks, which is possibly composed of the Neoproterozoic−Lower Palaeozoic basement of the Xunyang Basin. Integrating the data from ore geology, fluid inclusion microthermometry and stable, radioactive isotope geochemistry, it can be concluded that the deposits in the Xunyang Hg-Sb orefield were formed by epizonogenic hydrothermal fluids mainly sourced from the strata via structural deformation during the North China−Yangtze continental collision. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The East Qinling region in central China, hosting several tens of Mesozoic magmatic-hydrothermal Mo deposits, is one of the largest molybdenum belts in the world. The Zhifang Mo deposit is hosted in volcanic rocks of the Xiong'er Group in the Waifangshan area, Qinling Orogen. Previous studies variously correlated the mineralization in this deposit with Yanshanian magmatism or Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic volcanic-hydrothermal events. The orebodies are associated with quartz veins and controlled by subsidiary faults of the Machaoying Fault. The ore-forming process can be divided into the early, middle and late stages and is characterized by quartz-pyrite, quartz-polymetallic sulphide and quartz-carbonate veins, respectively. The early-stage quartz is structurally deformed, suggesting a compressional tectonic regime; the middle-stage sulphides fill the fractures of the early-stage assemblages and show no deformation, suggesting a tensional setting; the late-stage veins mostly infill the open-space fissures. Three types of fluid inclusions (FIs) are identified at the Zhifang deposit: H2O-NaCl (W-type), CO2-rich (C-type) and daughter mineral-bearing inclusions (S-type). Fluid inclusions of early-stage quartz homogenize between 380 and 470 °C, with salinities ranging from 0.4 to 9.6 wt.% NaCl equiv., whereas the late-stage calcite contains only the W-type FIs with homogenization temperatures of lower than 240 °C, and salinities of 0.4-8.7 wt.% NaCl equiv. This indicates that the ore fluid system evolved from CO2-rich, probably metamorphic hydrothermal to CO2-poor, meteoric fluid. All three types of FIs can be observed in the middle-stage quartz, and even in the microscopic domain of a crystal, suggesting that this heterogeneous association was trapped from a boiling fluid system. These FIs homogenized at temperatures ranging from 250 to 360 °C and display two salinity clusters of <18.5 and 29.1-29.9 wt.% NaCl equiv. These results suggest that metal precipitation resulted from fluid boiling. The estimated trapping pressures of FIs range from 101 to 285 MPa, suggesting an alternating lithostatic-hydrostatic fluid system, which was controlled by a fault-valve at the depth of 10 km. The δ34S values of ore minerals from the Zhifang Mo deposit show a range between −11.8‰ and 6.0‰, with a bimodal distribution. The early-stage pyrite has a positive δ34S value of 6.0‰ that is similar to the host rocks of the Xiong'er Group and the Taihua Supergroup, suggesting that the wall rocks contributed much of the sulphur to the early-stage pyrite during fluid-rock interaction. However, the δ34S values of the middle-stage sulphides have negative mean and restricted range from −11.8‰ to −4.5‰. The widespread rutile grains coexisting with molybdenite in the middle-stage correlate the negative δ34S values with relatively oxidized fluids. We consider phase separation as an efficient mechanism for ore-fluid oxidation and molybdenum deposition based on fluid inclusions and sulphur isotope data. Geological, fluid inclusion and sulphur isotope data of the Zhifang Mo deposit suggest that the Mo mineralization is unrelated to the Yanshanian magmatism or the Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic volcanic-hydrothermal event. Here we propose that the Zhifang Mo deposit may be considered as an orogenic mineral system, with its formation in an active continental margin related to the northward subduction of the Mian-Lue oceanic plate during the Triassic. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]