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Deoxynivalenol is a mycotoxin which frequently contaminates wheat and its derived products causing a major concern. In this work a previously developed model was inserted into a prototype desktop application for automated prediction of individual wheat kernels as contaminated over or under the maximum set level in the EU. Using 42 batches to test the system it was observed that in batches contaminated over 1 mg/kg the rejected fraction always contained more deoxynivalenol (mean 8.1 mg/kg) than the accepted one (mean 0.6 mg/kg), with 92.5 % of accepted mass fraction, in average., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Background: Maize is frequently contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins B 1 (FB 1 ) and B 2 (FB 2 ). In the European Union, these mycotoxins are regulated in maize and maize-derived products. To comply with these regulations, industries require a fast, economic, safe, non-destructive and environmentally friendly analysis method., Results: In the present study, near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) was used to develop regression and classification models for DON, FB 1 and FB 2 in maize kernels. The best regression models presented the following root mean square error of cross validation and ratio of performance to deviation values: 0.848 mg kg -1 and 2.344 (DON), 3.714 mg kg -1 and 2.018 (FB 1 ) and 2.104 mg kg -1 and 2.301 (FB 2 ). Regarding classification, European Union legal limits for DON and FB 1  + FB 2 were selected as thresholds to classify maize kernels as acceptable or not. The sensitivity and specificity were 0.778 and 1 for the best DON classification model and 0.607 and 0.938 for the best FB 1  + FB 2 classification model., Conclusion: NIR-HSI can help reduce DON and fumonisins contamination in the maize food and feed chain. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

In 2009 the EU Regulation 386/2009 established a new functional group of feed additives called "substances for reduction of the contamination of feed by mycotoxin". Later, di-octahedral bentonite (1 m558) was authorised, as an anti-aflatoxin additive, being the only additive of this group authorised to date. This work aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of other bentonites, such as tri-octahedral bentonites, versus Fusarium- mycotoxins, since very few adsorbents have proved their effectiveness in relation to this group of mycotoxins. For this purpose, 7 bentonites (six of them tri-octahedral) and 7 commercial adsorbents, added at 0.02% (w/v), were assayed in an in vitro adsorption experiment using two simulated gastro-intestinal (GI) juices (pH 1.3 and 6.8) versus zearalenone (ZEN: 0.1-5 mg/L), fumonisin B 1 (FB 1 : 1-10 mg/L) and deoxynivalenol (DON: 2-10 mg/L). Mycotoxin adsorption data were fitted to Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. In vitro adsorption experiments showed that ZEN and FB 1 (in the latter case only in acid medium) were partially adsorbed, while the adsorption of DON was negligible. Moreover, the increase of adsorbent dose (up to 0.20%, w/v) significantly improved the in vitro adsorption of ZEN and FB 1 , reaching >90% of adsorption. The present work proposes the use of some tri-octahedral bentonites as feed additives for Fusarium- mycotoxin reduction.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the occurrence of 23 mycotoxins in beer purchased in Mexico and to assess two exposure scenarios in the Mexican population through beer consumption. Multi-mycotoxin analysis of a total of 61 different beers (132 samples) was carried out using UHPLC-MS/MS equipment. Probability density functions were used to describe mycotoxins contamination. The daily intake of mycotoxins was estimated using a semi-probabilistic approach, applying the Monte Carlo method. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and its metabolites (deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON3G) and 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3ADON)) were the mycotoxins found in higher proportions in contaminated samples. None of the other mycotoxins overpassed the limit of quantification (LOQ) of the method. The combined intake of DON and its analogues ranged from 5.24 to 86.59 ng kg -1  bw day -1 , which represent from 1.20 to 19.83% of the DON TDI. The results suggest that depending on the individual consumption of beer and depending on the type of beer, the intake of DON via beer could represent a significant percentage of the tolerable daily intake (TDI).

The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most common mycotoxins of cereals worldwide, and its occurrence has been widely reported in raw wheat. The free mycotoxin form is not the only route of exposure; modified forms can also be present in cereal products. Deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-glucoside) is a common DON plant conjugate. The mycotoxin concentration could be affected by food processing; here, we studied the stability of DON and DON-3-glucoside during baking of small doughs made from white wheat flour and other ingredients. A range of common food additives and ingredients were added to assess possible interference: ascorbic acid (E300), citric acid (E330), sorbic acid (E200), calcium propionate (E282), lecithin (E322), diacetyltartaric acid esters of fatty acid mono- and diglycerides (E472a), calcium phosphate (E341), disodium diphosphate (E450i), xanthan gum (E415), polydextrose (E1200), sorbitol (E420i), sodium bicarbonate (E500i), wheat gluten and malt flour. The DON content was reduced by 40%, and the DON-3-glucoside concentration increased by >100%, after baking for 20 min at 180°C. This confirmed that DON and DON-3-glucoside concentrations can vary during heating, and DON-3-glucoside could even increase after baking. However, DON and DON-3-glucoside are not affected significantly by the presence of the food additives tested.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are the main contaminants in pistachio nuts. AFs production in pistachio has been attributed to Aspergillus flavus. The aim of this study was to apply existing models to predict growth and AFs production by an A. flavus isolated from pistachios as a function of moisture content and storage temperature of pistachios in order to test their usefulness and complementarities. A full factorial design was used: the moisture content levels assayed were 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30% and incubation temperatures were 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 37 and 42 °C. Both kinetic and probability models were built to predict growth of the strain under the assayed conditions. Among the assayed models, cardinal ones gave a good quality fit for radial growth rate data. Moreover, the progressive approach, which was developed based on a reduced number of experimental points led to an improved prediction in the validation step. This is quite significant as may allow for improved experimental designs, less costly than full factorial ones. Probability model proved to be concordant in 91% of the calibration set observations. Even though the validation set included conditions around the growth/no-growth interface, there was a 100% agreement in the predictions from the data set (n = 16, cut off = 0.5) after 60 days. Similarly, the probability for AF presence was rightly predicted in 89% of the cases. According to our results EC maximum aflatoxin levels would be surpassed in a period as short as 1 month if pistachio nuts reach 20 °C, unless %mc is ≤10%., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The need to ensure the microbiological quality and safety of food products has stimulated interest in the use of mathematical models for quantifying and predicting microbial behaviour. For 20 years, predictive microbiology has been developed for predicting the occurrence of food-borne pathogens, although these tools are dedicated to bacteria. Recently, the situation has changed and a growing number of studies are available in the literature dealing with the predictive modelling approach of fungi. To our knowledge the present one is the first review focussed on predictive mycology and food safety, including mycotoxins; existing kinetic and probability models applied to mycotoxigenic fungi germination and growth, and mycotoxin production are reviewed.

Penicillium expansum is the most important fungal species causing spoilage in cold stored apples. P. expansum produces patulin, a toxic secondary metabolite. The aim of this work was to study the changes in growth parameters and patulin accumulation that may occur when two different isolates of P. expansum germinate and develop in the same wound. The effect of the inoculum size was also studied. For that purpose, apples were point inoculated with two different isolates of P. expansum at two different conidia concentrations. Both isolates were also inoculated together. Apples were cold stored at 1 degrees C or incubated at 20 degrees C until lesion diameter reached 2.5 cm. Patulin from decayed tissue was analysed at the end of cold storage/incubation. It seems that intraspecific interactions occur. The interactions resulted in slower growth in which patulin content was lower. A competition for resources followed by either a "combat-like" interaction may be involved in this. Higher inoculum size led to shorter lag phase, which reflects the importance of the hygiene in packinghouses facilities. The inoculum size also affected growth rate and patulin accumulation, which suggests that interactions between individuals of the same strain may occur. Competition for resources and a combat-like interaction may take place. In vitro studies should be carried out in order to assess the patterns of the interactions observed.

The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of fumonisins (B(1) B(2,) and B(3)) and total aflatoxins (B(1), B(2), G(1), and G(2)) in various corn processed fractions. 92 batches of whole corn and derived dry-milled fractions (animal feed flour, flaking grits, corn flour and corn meal) and cooked and roasted cornflakes fractions were industrially obtained. Samples were analyzed for both groups of mycotoxins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Dry milling of corn led to a heterogeneous distribution of the two groups of mycotoxins in the different parts of the grain, with increased levels in fractions processed from outer layers (animal feed flour and corn flour) and decreased levels in fractions processed from inner portions, such as corn meal and flaking grits. Levels of fumonisins in cornflakes were lower than 400 microg/kg, the maximum tolerable limit set by the EU. By contrast, three samples of final product were found to exceed the aflatoxin maximum tolerable limit of 4 microg/kg. Animal feed flour showed concentration factors of 317 and 288% for fumonisins and aflatoxins, respectively. Food traceability system was used by the industrial companies which processed corn into breakfast cereals. Nevertheless, even though the use of food traceability, which is defined as the ability to trace any food, feed, food-producing animal or substance that will be used for consumption through all stages of production, processing and distribution, only initial fumonisin contamination of whole corn and contamination of animal feed flour and corn flour were found to be correlated.

Penicillium expansum, a patulin producer fungus, is the most important fungus causing decay in cold stored both apples and pears. This can lead to patulin contaminated by-products. The aim of this assay was to evaluate the phenotypical and physiological variability in the population of P. expansum that cause fruit spoilage in post-harvest stages in Lleida (Spain). In total, 101 isolates of P. expansum from the 2004 and the 2005 seasons were obtained from decayed fruits. Significant differences were found in the observations from both seasons. Variability of the isolates in each season seemed to be partially explained by differences in growth in media, patulin accumulation and resistance to fungicides. Patulin production was detected in almost 100% of the isolates. Variability existing in P. expansum population could not be totally explained, but the above mentioned variables explained up to 74% of the diversity in some cases. The results obtained point to the existence of different populations of P. expansum in each season and may explain the differences in fungicide resistance observed between both seasons. The capacity to colonize apple flesh and some variables involved in fruit colonization were not a source of variation neither in each season nor when both seasons were compared. As storage rooms are cleaned and disinfected each season, this suggests that each season, the populations in storage rooms develop only from strains capable to colonize apple flesh. This may lead to rapid sporulation and spreading of spores.

Growth of a range of 14 common food spoilage fungal species was evaluated along time as a function of both colony diameter and ergosterol content on malt extract agar. Growth was assessed under different environmental conditions following a central composite design. The suitability of using either linear, Gompertz's or Baranyi's models for primary modelling of the results was tested. Regarding colony diameters, using either linear or asymptotic Baranyi's function gave better estimations of growth rate and lag phase when no asymptotic trend was observed. When a decrease in growth rate was observed with time, standard Baranyi's model was chosen, although the search for new mechanistic models specific for moulds would probably improve the estimations. The use of Gompertz equation led, in general, to overestimated parameters. Ergosterol showed good performance as a fungal growth indicator for the whole range of species. Finally, significant correlation coefficients were found between ergosterol and colony diameters, suggesting that both parameters may be useful for primary modelling and thus for subsequent secondary modelling.

Patulin, a mycotoxin produced primarily by Penicillium expansum, is currently of great concern because of its undesirable effects in human health. It has been proven that patulin can damage organs and tissues in animals and some studies revealed carcinogenic and teratogenic effects. Patulin is found mainly in low quality apples diverted to production of apple by-products. Apples from cold storage or recently harvested (usually ground harvested or low quality apples) are stored under ambient conditions (deck storage) until they are processed. The present assay studies the consequences of this type of storage in development of lesions and patulin accumulation. The assayed factors were the size of lesions when apples were taken out from cold storage, time the apples stayed at room temperature after cold storage (as a simulation of deck storage) and intraspecific differences between 2 isolates of P. expansum. A sublot of P. expansum inoculated apples was cold stored until lesions achieved concrete sizes. Then, apples were either transferred to a 20 degrees C storage room for 0 to 5 days or were analysed for patulin immediately. The rest of the apples were directly stored at 20 degrees C. Each treatment had three replicates. Increase of lesion size with time at 20 degrees C depended on initial lesion size after cold storage. Bigger lesions were always achieved in apples with bigger initial lesion size. Initial lesion size and time at 20 degrees C significantly influenced patulin accumulation. No significant amounts of patulin were found in apples with lesions up to 2 cm after cold storage. Patulin amounts significantly increased on the 2nd day at 20 degrees C day and remained constant until the 5th day. Patulin accumulation tended to be higher when initial lesions were bigger. The assay showed the influence of apple quality (measured as overall lesion size) after cold storage on patulin accumulation during deck storage, as well as the importance of duration of deck storage. Quality of apples entering the processing plant should be assessed in order to program deck storage and minimise patulin accumulation. Predictive models of patulin accumulation as a function of time at room temperature and apple quality should be a useful tool to elaborators.

Two varieties of hulled rice artificially contaminated with aflatoxins at five different levels were processed by dehulling and polishing methods. Contamination levels ranged from 356 to 818 microg/kg and from 244 to 645 microg/kg in medium and long grain rice, respectively. After physical processing, four different milled fractions were obtained (hull, bran, polished broken grains, and polished whole kernels). The fractions were analyzed for total aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Aflatoxins were removed in fractions intended for human consumption (polished broken grains and polished whole kernels) at rates up to 97%. They were found throughout all fractions, but higher contamination levels were detected in hull and bran fractions than in unprocessed kernels and polished fractions. Regardless of the rice variety, the aflatoxin distribution pattern depended on the initial contamination level and type of milled fraction but not on the duration of polishing.

The aim of this study was to characterize Ochratoxin A (OTA) production by Aspergillus carbonarius under different environmental conditions, and to elucidate the diffusion capacity of OTA throughout synthetic medium. One strain belonging to the species A. carbonarius isolated from vine dried fruit was single-point inoculated onto triplicate synthetic nutrient medium plates at two water activities (0.92 and 0.97) and two temperatures (20 and 30 degrees C). Daily radii were measured and OTA production was tested after 4, 7, 10, 14 and 18 days of incubation at four distances from the centre of colony (1-4 cm). OTA production was detected mainly at 0.97 a(w). Earlier production was detected at 30 degrees C (optimum for growth), whereas maximum OTA concentrations were found at 20 degrees C. OTA production was detected from mycelium that was only a few days old and attained its optimum when mycelium was 4-7 days old at 0.97 a(w). OTA diffusion was observed at 0.92 a(w) and 20 degrees C. Thus OTA production is discernable in young A. carbonarius mycelium and diffusion of the toxin has been shown to occur in a solid substrate.

The objective of this work was to determine the effects of extrusion cooking on the stability of ochratoxin A (OTA) in an artificially contaminated hulled barley meal (0.73-mm grain diameter) using a single screw extruder. The extrusion cooking parameters were temperature (140, 160, and 180 degrees C), initial moisture content of barley meal (24, 27 and 30%), and residence time (30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 s). Both unextruded and extruded samples were analyzed for OTA by high-performance liquid chromatography. Extrusion cooking variables significantly affected the stability of OTA (P < 0.05). Greater OTA reductions were achieved at higher residence time (70 s), medium temperature level (160 degrees C), and either high (30%) or low moisture (24%) content of samples. The amount of OTA destroyed during the extrusion process ranged from 17 to 86% depending on the studied parameters. The decrease in the amount of OTA after extrusion cooking followed first-order kinetics, showing that the fastest treatment in OTA reduction was that at 140 degrees C and 24% of moisture content.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the general suitability of ergosterol content, CFU, and colony diameters determinations for a range of fungi representing food spoilage moulds for the assessment of their growth on solid substrates, in particular intermediate moisture foods. Sixteen food-borne mould species were inoculated onto DG18 agar overlaid with cellophane, allowing determination of a direct measurement of biomass density weighing. The samples were also evaluated with regard to visible and microscopic colony diameters, total ergosterol content, Thoma counts, viable CFU counts, and so on. The same parameters were assayed in the spore suspensions obtained from those cultures. Data were evaluated by multivariate data analysis using projection methods such as principal component analysis (PCA), showing some groupings among the measured variables, mainly linked to the sporulating/nonsporulating nature of the different species tested. Ratios among the different variables were obtained, compared among the species, and evaluated along time (2-10 days). It was concluded that, as a general rule for all the species, ergosterol content and colony diameters were better correlated to fungal biomass dry weight than CFU counts were. Conversion factors were 0.3-3 microg ergosterol mg(-1) biomass dry weight and 76-227 mg biomass dry weight cm(-2), depending on the species.

Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world. Its contamination with mycotoxins is of public health concern, especially for heavy drinkers. Beer production implies a variety of operations which might impact the initial level of mycotoxins in a positive or negative way. The complexity of these operations do not give to the brewer a complete control on chemical and biochemical reactions that take place in the batch, but the knowledge about mycotoxin properties can help in identifying the operations decreasing their level in foodstuffs and in the development of mitigation strategies. This review discusses available data about mycotoxin evolution during malting and brewing process. The operations that may lead to a decrease in mycotoxin load are found to be steeping, kilning, roasting, fermentation and stabilization operations applied over the process (e.g. clarification). Also, other general decontamination strategies usually employed in food industry, such as hot water treatment of barley, ozonation or even the use of lactic acid bacteria starter cultures during malting or fermentation are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The mycotoxins aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs) and zearalenone (ZEA) are produced by fungal species can contaminate cereal-based food and therefore can be found alone or simultaneously in cereal-based commodities. The objectives of this study were, to study the occurrence of AFs, DON, FBs and ZEA in ethnic and gluten-free food samples from Lleida (Spain), and also to assess the exposure of immigrant and celiac population to the selected mycotoxins. Ethnic food and gluten-free samples were purchased in specialized grocery stores from Lleida (Spain). Mycotoxins were extracted and purified from the samples using immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) columns. Determination and quantification of AFs, ZEA and FBs was performed with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector, and coupled to absorbance detector in case of DON. The results showed that FBs were widely found in corn-based foods purchased from special shops specialized on imported foods. DON was mainly found in cuscus and several corn-based ethnic foods. Several gluten-free food samples were contaminated by FBs (6 out of 18) and DON (2 out 18), while AFs and ZEA only were found in 6 ethnic foods samples. Considering these results, these special commodities should not be a health concern for these collectives; however, special attention should be focused on bulk imported foods distributed in special retail shops. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the highest occurring mycotoxin of Fusarium species. Its presence in cereal-based infant foods is extremely undesirable, especially considering the increased sensitivity of this population group to toxins. There are various studies on the influence of processing operations on DON and its conjugated levels in raw materials, however there is no available publication on baby food production process impact on DON. According to the available studies on the occurrence of DON and its conjugates in cereal-based infant food, it often occurs above the legally allowed limit, thus there is a need to study the influence of production processes on its evolution from raw materials to the final product. The available studies suggest that there are two production steps with a significant impact on DON concentration, namely enzymatic hydrolysis, which leads to its increase due to the release of the toxin from the cereal matrix, and drum drying, which might decrease DON concentration thanks to the high temperatures employed and highly efficient temperature penetration into the product. Highlights • DON is the most occurring Fusarium mycotoxin in oats, wheat and barley. • DON levels in several cereal-based baby food exceeding legal limits were found. • Cereal species and nature of contamination define the efficacy of DON reduction. • Enzymatic hydrolysis lead to an increase in DON levels. • Drum drying may result in a decrease in DON concentration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Cereals are very important for human and animal diet. However, agricultural products can be contaminated by moulds and their mycotoxins. On the other hand, natural plant products with antimicrobial properties could be a possibility to control mycotoxigenic fungi in foods and feeds. In this study, Equisetum arvense and Stevia rebaudiana extracts were tested for their efficacy against a range of mycotoxigenic fungi. Maize agar medium (MAM 2%) was used for this study and E. arvense and S. rebaudiana extracts were added at different concentrations (1–3%) under different water activity (a w) levels (0.85–0.95). Six mycotoxigenic moulds were inoculated and incubated at different temperatures (15–30 °C) during 21 days. In general, no growth was observed with E. arvense extract at 3% in all studied conditions for all isolates. However, with S. rebaudiana extract at 2–3%, growth was not significantly decreased (p < 0.05) in most of the cases. Finally, in terms of toxin production, results were not conclusive. The use of E. arvense extracts as antifungals and antimycotoxigenics and their application should be further explored. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of three alternating temperatures cycles (20/30, 20/37 and 25/42°C) and photoperiod on growth and Ochratoxin A (OTA) production of six isolates of Aspergillus carbonarius on synthetic nutrient medium were investigated. The different temperature regimes affected significantly both the mycelial growth and the OTA production. The best growth and OTA production were recorded at 20/30°C. The isolates from the region of Baddar produced the highest OTA yields. A 24h light cycle generally enhanced the growth of A. carbonarius. Growth rates cycles of 11h/13h light/darkness and 24h darkness were often similar for individual isolates, such conditions enhanced OTA production in two of the six isolates tested. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Whole and milled oat samples were analysed by near-infrared hyperspectral imaging. • Deoxynivalenol (DON) was quantified with a root mean square error of 403.18 μg/kg. • 1203 and 1388 nm were the most relevant wavelengths for DON estimation. • About 78 % of samples were correctly classified according to the EU legal limit. • DON estimation may be related to oat hulls, protein content and water content. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most occurring mycotoxin in oat and oat-based products. Near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) has been proposed as a promising methodology for analysing DON contamination in the food industry. The present study aims to apply NIR-HSI for DON detection in oat kernels and to quantify and classify naturally DON-contaminated oat samples. Unground and ground oat samples were scanned by NIR-HSI before their DON content was determined by HPLC. The data were pre-treated and analysed by PLS regression and four classification methods. The most efficient DON prediction model was for unground samples (R2 = 0.75 and RMSEP = 403.18 μg/kg), using twelve characteristic wavelengths with a special interest in 1203 and 1388 nm. The random forest algorithm of unground samples according to the EU maximum limit for unprocessed oats (1750 μg/kg) achieved a classification accuracy of 77.8 %. These findings indicate that NIR-HSI is a promising tool for detecting DON in oats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Alternaria is a common contaminating genus of fungi in fruits, grains, and vegetables that causes severe economic losses to farmers and the food industry. Furthermore, it is claimed that Alternaria spp. are able to produce phytotoxic metabolites, and mycotoxins that are unsafe for human and animal health. DNA amplification techniques are being increasingly applied to detect, identify, and quantify mycotoxigenic fungi in foodstuffs, but the inability of these methods to distinguish between viable and nonviable cells might lead to an overestimation of mycotoxin-producing living cells. A promising technique to overcome this problem is the pre-treatment of samples with nucleic acid intercalating dyes, such as propidium monoazide (PMA), prior to quantitative PCR (qPCR). PMA selectively penetrates cells with a damaged membrane inhibiting DNA amplification during qPCRs. In our study, a primer pair (Alt4–Alt5) to specifically amplify and quantify Alternaria spp. by qPCR was designed. Quantification data of qPCR achieved a detection limit of 102 conidia/g of tomato. Here, we have optimized for the first time a DNA amplification-based PMA sample pre-treatment protocol for detecting viable Alternaria spp. cells. Artificially inoculated tomato samples treated with 65μM of PMA, showed a reduction in the signal by almost 7cycles in qPCR between live and heat-killed Alternaria spp. conidia. The tomato matrix had a protective effect on the cells against PMA toxicity, reducing the efficiency to distinguish between viable and nonviable cells. The results reported here indicate that the PMA-qPCR method is a suitable tool for quantifying viable Alternaria cells, which could be useful for estimating potential risks of mycotoxin contamination. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of this study was to provide a current overview on patulin (PAT) contamination of apple products in Spain. A second aim was to provide some data on the effect of processing stages of fruit juice concentrates on patulin levels. None of the analysed samples contained PAT concentrations exceeding the maximum levels fixed by the EU. Pear and apple concentrates showed the highest levels (up to 126μg/kg). After milling, patulin levels did not exhibit important differences, except for at the concentration stage where a greater than fourfold mean increase was recorded. Moreover, a decrease was observed in those fruit juices that were decolourised after ultrafiltration. Thus, patulin presence in fruit products might not pose a health risk for the average consumer, although studies on patulin intake by populations consuming high amounts of fruit derivatives might be of importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]