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This recommended practice enables the quantification of volatile compounds in flavourings to be made by gas chromatography with flame-ionization detection, without having authentic compounds available, and also in many cases it can avoid time-consuming calibration procedures. The relative-response factors (RRF) can be predicted from the molecular formula of the compound, and this approach can be applied to compounds containing the atoms C, H, O, N, S, F, Cl, Br, I, and Si, providing that the molecular formula and number of benzene rings in the analytes are known. The purity of chemically-defined flavouring substances or chromatographic standards can also be estimated using these predicted RRF, and this procedure can also be used to quantify (poly)hydroxylated compounds, after their derivatization into trimethylsilyl ethers or esters. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The leaves of Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. (Lamiaceae) are the source of patchouli essential oil, which is - with an annual production of about 1300 tonnes - an important and unique commodity in the fragrance industry. All the literature pertaining to patchouli was critically reviewed with an emphasis on the qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis of the oil but also harvesting, fermentation, drying, distillation, used analytical techniques, sensory aspects including molecules responsible for the odour, adulteration and toxicological aspects, i.e., skin sensitisation, are discussed. In total 72 constituents have been convincingly identified in the oil and another 58 tentatively. The main constituent is the sesquiterpene patchoulol. For this review over 600 papers were consulted and in the supplementary information all patchouli-related references not relevant enough to be cited in the paper itself are listed.

A comprehensive and critical compilation of the volatile constituents of vetiver root (Chrysopogon zizanioides L.) is presented, including those present in its essential oil. This extremely complex material has stimulated analytical research for many decades in the hope of unravelling the secrets of its composition. Up to now, more than 300 molecules have been reported, mostly sesquiterpenoids possessing a large variety of skeletons, together with their norterpenic counterparts. This review attempts to clarify some of the discrepancies related to the characterization of these constituents, which were often due to the misuses of analytical methods without enough critical consideration of the literature. The identification of the main odour impact components of vetiver is also discussed, because much contradictory information appears in the literature on this subject. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Many flavour regulations around the world contain a list of so-called ‘restricted substances’ (RS), i.e. substances that occur naturally in source materials for flavourings and food ingredients with flavouring properties, but whose presence in certain foods is restricted and/or for which maximum levels are set, for example, the European regulation 1334/2008. Only a few publications refer to the determination of RS in compound flavourings or their raw materials, and the latter only concern the analysis of one or two individual RS in single essential oils. The Working Group on Methods of Analysis of the International Organization of the Flavor Industry (IOFI) has developed a method for the rapid routine determination of β-asarone, coumarin, menthofuran, methylchavicol, methyleugenol, pulegone, safrole and α- and β-thujones in flavourings and their raw materials by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), using selected-ion monitoring and internal standards. The method has been evaluated by nine flavour-industry laboratories using a complex surrogate flavouring containing all of the above analytes, at concentrations that would be likely to produce levels in finished foods of around typical maximum limits for these RS. Results were obtained from a total of 15 columns and sets of analytical conditions, using 11 GC/MS instruments, with in each case a determination of the analyte in two versions of the flavouring. With reproducibility relative standard deviations (RSDR) of less than about 20%, and recoveries of 80–120%, the method performance can be considered as satisfactory for rapid routine checks on the levels of restricted substances in compound flavourings. The method is intended for flavour-industry laboratories in order for them to fulfil their obligation to inform food-industry clients of the amounts of these substances in commercial flavourings, but is not intended for their analysis in finished foods. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Simultaneous distillation-extraction (SDE) combines, in a single step, hydro-distillation of volatiles from a sample with continuous solvent extraction of the solutes dissolved in the aqueous distillate. The solvent extract containing the isolated flavour volatiles can be subsequently analysed by gas chromatography. The technique is applicable to compounds possessing a wide range of volatility, but it is suitable neither for compounds of low volatility (e.g. vanillin), nor for highly volatile materials (e.g. methanethiol). The present guidelines concern the isolation of flavouring substances by simultaneous distillation-extraction (SDE), based on the experience of the authors in laboratories of the flavour industry. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A comprehensive review is presented on the constituents of the heartwood from fragrant sandalwood species, including Santalum album, S. spicatum and S. austrocaledonicum, which are important raw materials in the fragrance industry, and S. insulare, a closely related species. Analytical aspects are discussed in detail, both on qualitative and quantitative standpoints, and sensory properties are also reviewed. It is shown that more than 230 constituents have been identified so far in the heartwood of these sandalwood species. These components belong to many different chemical classes and are mainly terpenoids, but some other families are also represented. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This is a comprehensive review of extracts from the lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea (treemoss) that are used in the fragrance industry. Qualitative and quantitative analytical aspects are critically reviewed and the results are compared to those of the related oakmoss extracts. It is shown that more than 90 constituents have been identified so far in treemoss extracts, including 42 depsides, depsidones or depside-derived compounds, and 42 triterpenes or steroids. Constituents of certain host trees, mainly Pinus species, generate specific analytical and toxicological issues which need to be considered in addition to those related to the known degradation products of lichen compounds. A new classification of lichen extracts used as raw materials in fragrance compounding is proposed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Volatile extracts of two wild cabbages, Brassica cretica and Brassica insularis, were studied by GC–MS, GC/FID, and GC–olfactometry/aroma extract dilution analysis (GC–O/AEDA). Major compounds were 3-butenyl cyanide (70% of the total GC/FID area) and 3-butenyl isothiocyanate (29%) in B. cretica and 2-phenylethyl cyanide (53%) and 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate (21%) in B. insularis. AEDA revealed the impact of five heteroatomic trace compounds (diacetyl, methional, furfuryl thiol, 1-octen-3-one and skatole) with moderate to high flavour dilution (FD) factors that were detected only due to GC–O analyses. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The synthesis of 2-mercapto-p-menth-8-ene (3) and 1-mercapto-p-menth-8-ene (4) are described, starting, respectively, from thioepoxydation of (+)-trans-limonene 1,2-epoxide (1a) and (+)-cis-limonene 1,2-epoxide (1b) via hydride reduction of episulphides 2a and 2b. Structural determination of these sulphur-containing terpenoids was achieved by one- and two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy. The odours of these two new monoterpene thiols were described, respectively, as reminescent of grapefruit juice and as being typically alliaceous. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The components in essential oils of Dalmatian sage, Salvia officinalis L., were identified by 1 H- and 13 C-NMR spectroscopy and by GC-MS. The diterpene manool was identified for the first time in steam-distilled oil from Dalmatian sage. Several sesquiterpenes were also identified for the first time in Dalmatian sage oils. A rapid GC method was developed and used to analyse 13 oils from a preliminary study of Dalmatian sage accessions. Oil yields from pilot-scale distillations in summer were significantly higher from non-flowering accessions than from flowering accessions. Oils from flowering and non-flowering accessions had different compositions, with significantly higher levels of thujones, β-caryophyllene and viridiflorol in oils from flowering accessions

The absolute prepared from an Indian commercial concrete from flowers of Jasminum auriculatum Vahl was examined. Column and molecular distillations, column chromatography and chemical function separations were carried out. GC-MS and GC-FTIR of numerous fractions thus obtained allowed the identification of 198 compounds. Among them, methyl, ethyl, (Z)-hex-3-enyl, benzyl, 2-phenylethyl and (E,E)-farnesyl esters were found, in addition to phenols and nitrogen compounds.

A comprehensive review is presented on extracts of a lichen, oakmoss (Evernia prunastri), that are used in the fragrance industry. Analytical aspects are discussed in detail, from both qualitative and quantitative standpoints, mainly in relation to the industrial processing of the lichen. It is shown that more than 170 constituents have been identified so far in oakmoss extracts, including 47 depsides or depside-derived compounds and 25 triterpenes or steroids. A survey of industrially relevant synthetic products with an oakmoss odour is included. Toxicology issues related to the use of oakmoss extracts in cosmetics and fragrance formulations are critically reviewed.

This article reviews papers published during the period 1982-88 on the headspace of medicinal and aromatic plants and flowers. Articles reported in Chemical Abstracts, the bibliography section of the Journal of Chromatography and Analytical Abstracts are discussed. Considering the large number of publications on this topic which have appeared in the literature over this period, we apologize in advance for any articles which may have been overlooked. Flower headspace analysis is treated as an especially dedicated subject, considering the peculiarity and specificity of this topic.

The mode of reduction through fermenting baker's yeast and Hansenula anomala CBS 110 of 4-phenylbut-3-en-2-ones 7-9 has been studied. The ratio between saturated ketones 1-3, saturated carbinols 4-6 and starting materials 7-9 depends upon the microorganism used and the incubation period. When using as substrate ketone 7, obtained from natural precursors and baker's yeast as reducing agent, up to 80.5% of natural raspberry ketone 1 is obtained.

The fragrance given off by certain springtime flowers was the subject of a previous communication. We now present the results from further analyses of flower headspaces from cultivated and wild plants (including trees), which bloom at the end of spring and in summer in the Grasse region: Sambucus nigra L. (elder), Ligustrum ovalifolium (privet), Ligustrum vulgare L. (common-privet), Ailantus glandulosa Desf., Magnolia grandiflora L. and Trachelospermum jasminoides. We bring further information about the composition of the headspace from Philadelphia coronarius L. flowers (seringat), which were only briefly reported in our first communication. We confirm that the odoriferous emissions from flowers contain some chemical substances which are not readily detected in the corresponding extraction or hydrodistillation products. Such constituents include, for example, terpenoids and aliphatic amino acid derivatives, some of which may be considered as new natural products.