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Background In this current study, a systematic review and meta-analysis in a global scale regarding the prevalence and concentration of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in the human breast milk were conducted based on the socioeconomic indexes and amounts of precipitation. Scope and approach All available studies published in PubMed, Scopus, Web of sciences and Embase databases were screened between 1 January 1983 and 25 December 2017. Also, the probabilistic carcinogenic risk by the hazard index (HI) in the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) was calculated. Key findings and conclusions The meta-analysis of 57 papers containing 196 studies showed that the minimum and maximum concentrations of AFM1 in human breast milk was noted in Sierra Leone (0.80 ng/L) and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) (465.76 ng/L), respectively. The lowest prevalence of AFM1 in human breast milk was reported in Brazil (2%) while the highest was observed in the Gambia ∼ Tanzania ∼ Jordan (100%). The minimum and maximum concentrations of AFM1 in human breast milk were observed in America (10.30 ng/L) and South-East Asia continents (358.99 ng/L), respectively. Also, the lowest and highest prevalence of AFM1 in human breast milk was observed in the West Pacific (7%) and Africa (52%) continents, respectively. According to findings, with increasing average rain annual and poverty (GDP ranking), the prevalence of AFM1 in human breast milk significantly (P-value

This study aimed to assess the exposure of residents (N=86) from rural areas to multiple mycotoxins and characterize the associated risk in two sampling periods (SP) (April–May and December/2016). Mycotoxins in food and urine samples were determined by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Mean probable daily intake (PDI) values based on occurrence data in foods in both SP varied from 0.007 to 0.013, 0.069 to 1.002, 0.119 to 0.321 and 0.013–0.156 μg kg−1 body weight (bw) day−1 for aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs) and zearalenone (ZEN), respectively. Mean PDI values based on urinary biomarkers were 0.001, 84.914, 0.031, 0.377 and 0.002 μg kg−1 bw day−1 for AFB1, DON, ochratoxin A (OTA), FB1 and ZEN, respectively. Hazard quotient (HQ) calculated using food data revealed a potential health concern for ZEN in 2nd SP. HQ > 1 based on urinary biomarkers were observed for DON in the two SP. Although OTA was not detected in any food sample, the HQ based on urinary OTA levels was>1 in the 1st SP. Margin of exposure values for AF from food and urine data in the 1st SP were below 10,000, indicating potential health risks. Highlights: Mycotoxin exposure evaluation and risk assessment in rural areas from Brazil; 53% of food samples analyzed (N=203) presented at least one type of mycotoxin; Urinary biomarkers of mycotoxins found at levels of 0.02–12.0 ng mg−1 creatinine; PDI based on biomarkers in urine exceed recommended TDI values for DON and OTA; Margin of exposure values indicated health risks associated with dietary aflatoxins. The authors would like to thank the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) – grant no. 400649/2014-4, for financial support and fellowships. This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001. Paula Alvito and Ricardo Assunção acknowledge the support from National Institutes of Health, Dr. Ricardo Jorge, and CESAM by means of Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia [UID/AMB/50017/2013], through national funds, and the co-funding by the FEDER [POCI-01- 0145-FEDER-00763], within the PT2020 Partnership. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The increased consumption of plant-based foods has intensified the concern related to mycotoxin intoxication. This study aimed to investigate the effect of selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains on the growth of Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2999 and its production of aflatoxin (AF). The ability of the heat-killed (100°C for 1 h) LAB strains to bind aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN) in potassium phosphate buffer (PPB) was also evaluated in vitro. Ten LAB strains were tested individually, by inoculating them simultaneously with the fungus or after incubation of the fungus for 24 or 48 h at 25°C. Double layer yeast extract sucrose (YES) agar, de Man Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) agar, and YES broth were incubated for 7 days at 25°C to follow the development of the fungus. Levilactobacillus spp. 3QB398 and Levilactobacillus brevis 2QB422 strains were able to delay the growth of A. parasiticus in YES broth, even when these strains were inoculated 24 h after the fungus. The inhibitory effect of these LAB strains was confirmed by the reduction of fungus colony size, suggesting dominance of LAB by competition (a Lotka-Voltera effect). The production of AFB1 by A. parasiticus was inhibited when the fungus was inoculated simultaneously with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 3QB361 or L. plantarum 3QB350. No AFB1 was found when Levilactobacillus spp. 2QB383 was present, even when the LAB was inoculated 48 h after the fungus. In binding studies, seven inactivated LAB strains were able to promote a reduction of at least 50% the level of AFB1, OTA, and ZEN. This reduction varied depending on the pH of the PPB. In milk, however, only two inactivated LAB strains were able to reduce AFM1, with a reduction of 33 and 45% for Levilactobacillus spp. 3QB398 (Levilactobacillus spp.) and L. brevis 2QB422, respectively. Nevertheless, these results clearly indicate the potential of using LAB for mycotoxin reduction.

This study aimed to compare Lactobacillus rhamnosus growth in MRS (de Man, Rogosa and Sharpe) broth and a culture medium containing milk whey (MMW) and to evaluate aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) adsorption capacity by bacterial cells produced in both culture media. L. rhamnosus cells were cultivated in MRS broth and MMW (37 °C, 24 hours), and bacterial cell concentration was determined spectrophotometrically at 600 nm. AFB1 (1 µg/ml) adsorption assays were conducted using 1 x 10(10) non-viable L. rhamnosus cells (121 °C, 15 minutes) at pHs 3.0 and 6.0 and contact time of 60 minutes. AFB1 quantification was performed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography. Bacterial cell concentration in MMW was higher (9.84 log CFU/ml) than that in MRS broth (9.63 log CFU/ml). There were no significant differences between AFB1 binding results at the same pH value (3.0 or 6.0) for the cells cultivated in MRS broth (46.0% and 35.8%, respectively) and in MMW (43.7% and 25.8%, respectively), showing that MMW can adequately replace the MRS broth. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of L. rhamnosus cells cultivated in MMW offers advantages such as reduction in large scale production costs, improvement of environmental sustainability, and being a practicable alternative for decontamination of food products susceptible to aflatoxin contamination.

Milk is one of the most important food items consumed by humans worldwide. In addition to its nutritional importance, milk is an excellent culture medium for microorganisms, which may include pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes). Traditional processing of milk for direct consumption is based on thermal treatments that efficiently eliminate pathogens, including pasteurization or sterilization. However, the occurrence of L. monocytogenes in milk as a consequence of failures in the pasteurization process or postpasteurization contamination is still a matter of concern. In recent years, consumer demand for minimally processed milk has increased due to the perception of better sensory and nutritional qualities of the products. This review deals with the occurrence of L. monocytogenes in milk in the last 10 years, including regulatory aspects, and recent advances in technologies for the inactivation of this pathogen in milk. The results from studies on nonthermal technologies, such as high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric fields, ultrasounds, and ultraviolet irradiation, are discussed, considering their potential application in milk processing plants.

In vitro tests were performed to determine the ability of beer fermentation residue (BFR) containing Saccharomyces cerevisiae to bind aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA) and deoxynivalenol (DON). BFR was obtained from a microbrewery, dried and ground, resulting in approximately 1.0 × 1010 S. cerevisiae cells g− 1 BFR. Binding assays consisted of suspending BFR (100 mg) in 10 mL of buffer solution (pH 3.0 or 6.5) spiked with AFB1, ZEA, OTA or DON (2.0 μg mL− 1 of each mycotoxin), incubation (60 min, 25 °C) followed by centrifugation. The supernatants were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. BFR had higher binding capacity for ZEA (75.1% and 77.5% at pH 3.0 and 6.5, respectively), when compared with AFB1, OTA and DON (less than 60% and 40% at pH 3.0 and 6.5, respectively). BFR also produced linear isotherms for ZEA at both pH values, hence indicating a potential application of industrial fermentation by-products containing yeast cells in reducing the bioavailability of ZEA in contaminated feedstuffs. However, in vivo studies are required to prove its efficacy in livestock and poultry.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) can cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive effects in humans and animals. Several lactic acid bacteria species have the ability to bind AFB1 in vitro, showing a potential application for reducing the bioavailability of AFB1 in contaminated products. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the capacity of Lactobacillus rhamnosus, non-viable and dried, in removing the AFB1 from a contaminated medium. L. rhamnosus were cultured in MRS broth, sterilized (121 ºC, 15 min.) to inactivate their metabolism and then dried by spray-drying or freeze-drying (lyophilization). Binding assays using AFB1 (1.0 µg/ml) and L. rhamnosus cells (1×1010 cells, in suspension or spray-dried or freeze-dried) were conducted at pH 3.0 and 6.0, room temperature and contact time of 60 min. Quantification of AFB1 was achieved by high performance liquid chromatography. Scanning electron microscope was also performed in order to analyze the drying effect on the atomized and lyophilized L. rhamnosus cells. For pH 3.0 and 6.0, there were no significant differences between AFB1 binding efficiency by L. rhamnosus cells in solution (45.9 ± 8.8% and 35.8 ± 7.7%, respectively) or freeze-dried (36.6 ± 7.1% and 27.2 ± 4.0%, respectively). However, the spray-dried cells lost completely the AFB1 binding capacity during atomization, which damaged the structural and functional properties of the bacterial cell wall. In conclusion, L. rhamnosus retained its AFB1 binding ability only when its cell wall remained intact as observed in the lyophilization procedure. Lyophilized L. rhamnosus cells therefore can be a practicable alternative for decontamination of food products susceptible to aflatoxin contamination.