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This research aims to determine the causes of land-use conflicts and formulate a participatory conflict resolution model of the Forest Management Unit (KPH) of Kulawi. Through interviews with respondents using the purposive sampling method. The study included the community around the forest area, local government, KPH, Department of Agriculture, BPDAS-HL, and local government. Data analysis was stakeholder's and land use conflict by using problem trees analysis. The study results show that the battle occurred not only because of the community's factor of accessing the area illegally but also because the KPH has not performed its function correctly. Some factors cause enforcement's failure, such as lack of understanding of the area and community empowerment. Some alternative solutions desired by the community: (1) The government through related agencies should supervise forest areas, (2) Clear boundaries between community-owned land, villages, and forest areas, (3) Community empowerment by utilizing potential forest product resources and (4) Granting management rights to community's forest claimed by the community. There are two models of conflict resolution to be offered. First, the KPH needs the collaboration of parties to resolve land-use conflicts. Second, community involvement as the main subject is significant in every stage of conflict resolution. The KPH supports improving community capacity related to competence in conflict resolution is indispensable.

The social forestry program which aims to improve the condition of forests and the welfare of the community is a solution in forest governance in Indonesia. However, implementation of social forestry in the field still shows very low performance both qualitatively and quantitatively. Therefore, a transition to a more holistic social forestry management concept is needed, which can be pursued through the implementation of the main social forestry development strategies which include: area management, institutional management and business management. As one of the pillars in the strategy of developing social forestry, business management determines the impact of social forestry activities on improving the welfare of the community. This article aims to present the design of the activities which is needed in establishing business management on social forestry permit schemes in production forests. Analysis of the policy content and the implementation of social forestry programs using interview methods and field observations were presented in both qualitatively and descriptively. We found that, the various activities are business partnerships with corporation or Forest Management Unit, greater authority for communities to harvest forest products, simpler forest product administration regulations, incentives for processing forest products, and ease in obtaining capital support.

Nontimber forest products (NTFPs)‬ are one of the forest products that can provide direct benefits to communities living around forests. Some of the most used NTFPs in Indonesia are the stems, leaves and fruit of candlenut trees. Candlenut fruit is widely used in the cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and biodiesel industries and is generally used as a cooking ingredient in Indonesia. However, only a limited number of people or community groups manage the forests to increase their income from this business. The aim of this study is to identify business models to serve as the basis for developing alternative business model organizational plans for candlenut extraction. A case study approach was adopted, with in-depth interviews used to collect data. The integration of Business Model Canvas, SWOT Analysis, Internal Factor Evaluation and External Factor Evaluation matrix were used to determine alternative strategies. The results exhibit that the value proposition is the largest barrier for the improvement of these businesses. The Positioning Quadrant SWOT shows that internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) are low, indicating that the candlenut business position is internally weak. However, the scores of external factors (opportunities and threats) are higher implying that there is a great opportunity in the development of candlenut. The alternative strategies to develop candlenut business are to maintain relationships with customers and partners; increasing the quantity and quality of products through technology inputs, promotion, product diversification, and partnership with the government.‬‬

Copaifera oleoresin is an important traditional non-timber forest product in the Amazon; however, the Carajas National Forest has no plans to harvest this product to benefit extractive families. The objective of this study was to determine Copaifera oleoresin extraction potential in the Carajas National Forest, Eastern Amazon, identifying variables that could increase the chances of finding oleoresin. We mapped 129 trees and formulated a multiple logistic regression model (logit) with the collected variables: diameter at breast height (DBH), tree crown, tree health, presence of termites, and presence of damage or bifurcation. Among the mapped trees, we perforated 50 trees to harvest the oleoresin. Most of the oleoresin production occurred in trees with a DBH between 50 and 75 cm. The logit model predicted that an increase in DBH, dense crown, unhollowed trunk, and presence of damage or bifurcation increased the chances of oleoresin extraction, whereas termites did not. The model could contribute to the sustainable management of forest resources by avoiding random perforation of trees and establishing rational routes and cycles of extraction. Since the variables are easily measured, the model can be continuously used for future extractions.

Improving forest product value chains is considered a means to solve forest-related challenges in the Global South. The ‘Participative Innovation Platform’ (PIP) instrument has been developed to design and to continually adapt solutions and strategies for effective cooperation amongst value chain actors. The instrument is rooted in the action-oriented and social learning approach, combined with the concept of innovation systems. This paper presents findings from three PIPs conducted for upgrading non-timber forest product value chains in Ethiopia (bamboo, natural gums) and Sudan (gum Arabic). A comparative analysis of highest ranked contents revealed similarities in the challenges: lack of government support, poor infrastructure, producers’ lack of knowledge and skills, and lack of market information. Priority upgrading measures focused on producers’ knowledge, skills, and capacity to engage in collective action and to lobby interests, and on capital resources to invest in processing technology. It is concluded that although the PIP instrument presents an innovative way to upgrade forest-based value chains, the instrument requires a long-term process with frequently held platform meetings, conducted by neutral institutions with skilled moderators. Crucial in this process is the need to consistently verify and ensure that all actor groups of the chain are represented, and are confident they will derive benefits from the value chain upgrading.

Selective Cutting and Line Planting (TPTJ) silvicultural systems and Indonesian Selective Cutting and Planting (TPTI) are two of the five silvicultural systems that have been determined by the Ministry of Forestry Regulation No. P.11 / Menhut-II / 2009 juncto P.65 / Menhut-II / 2014 concerning silvicultural systems in the area of timber forest product utilization permits (IUPHHK) in production forests. Three other silvicultural systems based on the regulation are the Gap Logging silviculture system, the Fully Made Rejuvenation System, and the Multi Silviculture System. This study aims to examine the implementation of the TPTJ and TPTI systems in the PT Intracawood Manufacturing (PT Intraca) area, Bulungan Regency, North Kalimantan. The methodology of this research is through the approach of growth analysis, comparison of stand increment, observation of environmental conditions, interviews and literature study. Based on the field research, it was found that the diameter increments of Shorea leprosula, Shorea dasyphila, and Shorea parvifolia were greater in the TPTJ system compared to TPTI. However, the TPTI silviculture system at PT Intraca is easier to apply in the field than the TPTJ silviculture system. The TPTJ system has become less effective because planting in the TPTJ system has been carried out by making a 3-meter wide track with a length of approximately 1 km in a plot and if there is potential for the wood to become ineffective. In the area of PT Intraca, to improve the effectiveness of the TPTJ system a mosaic system is used where the planting path is made only in areas with less potential and representative for planting. The types of plants planted in the TPTJ system are far superior, perspective, and are faster than the types of plants in the TPTI system. Planting/enrichment in the TPTI system is easier because it does not need to make a planting path. Planting with seedlings from the extraction is only a transfer from the growth of tillers from areas with an excessive potential for tillers.

A typical case of multiple-use forest management (MFM) in Southwestern Amazon is the commercial harvesting of Amazon or Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) seeds and of timber of other tree species. Although the Amazon nut is the most important non-timber forest product (NTFP) in the Amazon basin, the species is under serious threat due to deforestation and may also be affected by overharvesting. However, selective logging of other tree species coexisting with Bertholletia may positively affect Bertholletia populations, thus enabling a special case for MFM. For this research, we investigated the impact of the intensity of Amazon nut harvesting and timber logging on Bertholletia populations in the Bolivian Amazon. We used demographic data from 72 two-hectare transects located within 24 community-based household forests varying in the intensity of nut collection (0–100%) and timber logging (0–15% of logging-disturbed forest area). Simulated Bertholletia population size increased with logging intensity but decreased with Amazon nut harvesting intensity. Bertholletia populations were projected to grow at the average MFM harvesting scenario tested: 57.4% of nut harvesting, 5.3% of logging-disturbed area (λ100 = 1.011). Our simulations also revealed that up to 89% of Amazon nut seeds can be harvested while sustaining Bertholletia populations, under 15% of logging-disturbed area, and applying liana cutting. Modest levels of timber logging and application of liana cutting may compensate for the negative effect of Amazon nut collection on Bertholletia populations for the next century. Our study demonstrates that Amazon nut and timber production could be combined in a sustainable MFM scheme, thus increasing the economic value of managed tropical forests and its promotion to reduce the increasing pressure by deforestation.

Forest products are materials gotten from forest, for the direct consumption or commercial use such as timber and non-timber forest products. The destruction of forest in Andoni due to the exploration and consumption of forest products are done without determining the values of these products that could have been lost. This study attempts to determine the value of identified forest products information gathered through the use of questionnaire focus group discussion, field survey and other related materials. The simple percentage analysis shows that forest products have a lot of value to the people; hence community dwellers involved in it. Conclusively, forest product were identified and categorized into wildlife species (wild animal) and plant species which usefulness were been influenced by socio-external factor, economical factor and livelihood security factor. The economic value of forest product in a study area is N532,351,300.00 while the expected value is N865,648,300.00. Therefore, the government at all levels should provide indiscriminate exploitation of premature forest product policy on forest management that are appropriate. These should be made to effectively reflect and enhance forest protection and improvement of livelihood of the people.

With the advent of the European bioeconomy and a shift in lifestyle among European citizens, non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are given more attention in the public debate. Their potential to strengthen the economic viability of rural economies appears to be high, particularly in regions where wood is not the most profitable forest product. However, information on NWFP production potentials are scarce and tools to support forest owners in decision making about NWFP management are rarely available. Considering the complex relationships between a sustained production of NWFPs, the use of the available ecological resources, as well as the organizational and the market potential of forest management regimes, we introduce a knowledge-based expert model for supporting NWFP management. In a mixed-method approach qualitative and quantitative techniques are combined to depict regional production and business potentials of NWFPs, explicitly addressing different environmental and socio-economic contexts. For the model building multi-criteria analysis methods were used for preference elicitations in an iterative form, including stakeholders and experts. Within two distinct case study settings (i.e. Austria and Finland) the expert model is tested for applicability and to depict the most suitable option from a suite of selected NWFPs. Results for both case studies well reflect current NWFP business potentials and provide insights to the opportunities of mixing more resilient and more risky NWFPs to a solid regional business portfolio, fostering the co-production of wood and non-wood resources. The approach presented has a potential to steer the mindset of different forest owner types to critically revise their interests in forest management. It could act as an eye-opener for forestry-oriented stakeholders who have not yet considered NWFPs as potential assets in forest management systems. With its ability to include various NWFPs and to consider different forest owner preferences, future applications can be tailored towards the needs of both small-scale (non-industrial) forest owners and bigger forest holdings.

To encourage the environmental responsibility of consumers and manufacturers for forest management, it is necessary to evaluate the environmental influences of forest products. Ecological footprint (EF) is an internationally recognized indicator for estimating the natural capital consumption and environmental influences of various forest products. In this study, we developed an accounting model for the EF evaluation of wood flooring, which is a tertiary forest product, by the method of transformation. Next, we used that model to evaluate the EF of three types of wood flooring in China according to their production data from 2000 to 2018. We collected the necessary data by visiting typical enterprises in China and referring to the relevant literature. According to our results, the average EFs of solid wood flooring, engineered solid wood flooring and laminate flooring between 2000 to 2018 were 3.13×106, 1.05×107 and 5.07×106 gha, respectively. The total EFs of solid wood flooring, engineered solid wood flooring and laminate flooring from 2000 to 2018 were 5.95×107, 1.99×108 and 9.64×107 gha, respectively. The coefficients of variation (CV) of the EFs for these three types of wood flooring were 0.45, 0.87 and 0.76, respectively. The average and total EFs of the engineered solid wood flooring were the largest among the three types of wood flooring. The per capita EF and unit EF for the engineered solid wood flooring were also the highest among the three types of wood flooring. The EFs showed an upward trend with irregular fluctuations from 2000 to 2018 for all three types of wood flooring. It is necessary to reduce the EF of the engineered solid wood flooring and use more environmentally friendly products, such as solid wood flooring, for environmental protection.

1. Forest landscape restoration (FLR) has gained momentum globally and guidance is needed to identify those species, sites and planting methods that increase restoration success. Incorporating native Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP) species in FLR approaches provides an opportunity to simultaneously deliver ecological and economic benefits. The Brazil nut tree is one of the most valuable Amazonian NTFP species and could fulfil a cornerstone role in Amazon FLR. However, the factors defining establishment success within Brazil nut restoration activities remain unknown. 2. Here, we evaluate the effect of management practices, restoration site (pastures, agroforestry, secondary forest and canopy gaps in old growth forest) and environmental conditions on the establishment success (tree growth, survival and fruit production) of Brazil nut restoration projects implemented by smallholders in the Peruvian Amazon. We performed a field study at 25 restoration sites of 1–38 years in age, where we conducted measurements on 481 trees and interviewed 21 smallholders. We used mixed effect models to identify drivers of performance. 3. Twenty years after planting, diameter growth in secondary forests was 38%, 34%, and 24% higher than in canopy gaps, pastures, and agroforestry sites, respectively. Survival rate was similar for trees planted in pastures and secondary forests, but 15–20% higher there than trees planted in agroforestry sites, and 7–12% higher than in canopy gaps. Fruit production was 262% higher for reproductive trees in secondary forest sites compared to pastures, but production probability did not differ between restoration sites. These results show that secondary forests are the most suitable sites for planting Brazil nut trees. 4. In addition to restoration site effects, we also found significant effects of management practices. Survival rate increased with application of fire for clearing and weeding and economic investments and decreased with potentially inefficient herbivore protection. Fruit production was lower for trees planted further away from smallholders’ homes. These results show that smallholders’ management has a substantial effect on establishment success. 5. Our findings suggest a significant importance of post-planting maintenance of trees to increase success of FLR projects. Further, our study shows that evaluation of past restoration activities can guide future forest restoration in tropical landscapes., Forest Ecology and Management, 498, ISSN:0378-1127, ISSN:1872-7042

Private forest (PF) program has the potential to be one of the most efficient forest management programs in Nepal but it has not gained the momentum compared to the other forest management regimes. Considering this, this paper aims to portray policy provisions, existing institutional arrangements as well as landholder experiences and perceptions over the existing mechanisms of PF registration, management, and forest product harvesting. Using the Sudoorpashchim province of Nepal as a case study, we conducted policy and literature reviews, key informant interviews, household surveys, and field observations. We found only 300 PFs registered in the Sudoorpashchim province, with lowland districts having the highest proportion (87%). Institutional arrangements and procedures for timber harvesting and selling were found to be lengthy and complex, with this being a major issue for PF owners with small forest areas. Government initiatives are inadequate to facilitate PF development due to poor implementation of policy provisions, as well as the lack of appropriate incentives and program packages. Despite a very small government investment in PF development, we found the return from PFs in terms of timber supply to be substantially higher than other forest management regimes. Among others, PF owners perceive the cumbersome regulatory procedures and lack of technical support to be the most pertinent factors responsible for the limited growth of PFs. Based on our results, we have discussed and recommended a number of policy and institutional measures to mainstream PF development programs, in order to support economic prosperity of the nation.

Eastern deciduous forests in the United States have supplied marketable non-timber forest products (NTFP) since the 18th century. However, trade is still largely informal, and the market scope and structure are not well understood. One exception is American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). Ginseng’s legal status as a threatened species requires that buyers apply for a license and keep sales records that are submitted to a state authority. Other marketable medicinal plants collected from the same forests, known colloquially as ‘off-roots’, are not similarly tracked. To study the characteristics of off-root trade in the eastern deciduous forests of the United States, registered ginseng buyers in 15 eastern states were surveyed in 2015 and 2016 about business attributes, purchase volume, and harvest distribution for 15 off-root species selected for their economic and conservation value. Buyers voluntarily reported harvesting 47 additional NTFP species. The most frequently purchased off-root species were the roots and rhizomes of two perennial understory plants: black cohosh (Actaea racemosa L.) and goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.). Survey data were used to develop a buyer typology and describe the off-root market structure and material sourcing. The buyer typology included four distinct categories: side or specialty (small), seasonal venture (medium), large integrated or dedicated business (large), and dedicated bulk enterprise (regional aggregator). Market activity was mapped across the study area, demonstrating that most off-root trade is concentrated in central Appalachia, an area with extensive forests and a struggling economy. Study methods and data improve non-timber forest product market insights, are useful for forest management, and can support efforts to advance sustainable NTFP supply chains.

Timber Legality Assurance System or Sistem Verifikasi Legalitas Kayu (SVLK) is implemented and recognized as a certification for timber products exported from Indonesia. SVLK applied to all the forest product chains included the smallholder Forest Management Unit (FMU). It has been a particular concern to smallholder FMU on achieving the compliance of SVLK at least at two points: 1) the capability and knowledge for the technical process; and 2) the challenges to meet the certification cost. Researches have been done on the capability, challenges and opportunity, cost and benefit, strategies, and how the absence of smallholders FMU certification on supply chain affected timber product legality uncertainty. Meanwhile, a concern on smallholder FMU’s willingness to pay (WTP) certification as one of the main constraints of SVLK implementation is still unseen. A case study in KTH Enggal Mulyo Lestari aims to reveal the actual willingness to pay to fulfill the SVLK certification cost. Research conducted by Focus Group Discussion followed by a questionnaire. This study’s findings illustrate that the WTP of smallholders FMU is still under the certification costs minimum standard stipulated on regulation. Some partnerships with the wood industries, local government and non-government organizations are suggested in this article.

Key messagesThis policy brief shows the investment priorities of stakeholders in the field of forests protection and development from 2011-2019, focusing on 16 key areas: 1. forest conservation; 2. enhancement of forest carbon stocks (forest restoration/regeneration); 3. sustainable logging practices (RlL; forest certification); 4. afforestation and reforestation; 5. agricultural land use emission reductions (low emission agriculture/greening business practices, e.g. zero deforestation supply chains); 6. design of national level REDD+ strategies policies and programs; 7. design of sub-national level REDD+ strategies, policies and programs; 8. national level implementation of REDD+ strategy, policies and programs (e.g. MRV or safeguards institutions); 9. implementation of REDD+ site activities (including demonstration sites); 10. tenure rights (land, trees); 11. biodiversity conservation; 12. poverty alleviation; 13. forest governance (illegal logging, rule of law, corruption); 14. community-based or joint forest management (as co-benefit of REDD); 15. adaptation to climate change; and 16. REDD+ related carbon finance/trading. Stakeholder investment priorities for these 16 areas mostly expanded throughout these years to keep up with worldwide forestry sector development trends. Favorable support from stakeholders can create advantageous conditions for Vietnam to experiment with and pioneer many policy areas and new technologies.Areas such as poverty alleviation, forest governance, biodiversity conservation, agricultural land use emission reductions, and sustainable logging practices, as well as REDD+ design and implementation have attracted the greatest attention from stakeholders. Issues of tenure rights and sustainable logging practices, despite limited increases in priority, remain key investment priorities of the organizations surveyed. Stakeholder prioritization of and investment in afforestation and reforestation have decreased over time.Although the prioritization of financial and technological support during the period from 2011-2019 has created favorable conditions for developing the forestry sector, stakeholders' current priorities also show that many areas (e.g. community-based forest management, carbon finance/trading, forest product processing) remain underdeveloped and their investment potential and roles have not been met.The aims of the Forest Law are to develop a comprehensive forestry sector, a chain of management, protection, development, forest use, and forest product trade. However, stakeholders' areas of interest and priorities have so far focused mainly on forest management and protection. Comprehensive and sustainable forestry sector development requires investment prioritization for all stages.As each stakeholder requires different investment priorities, understanding these can not only help the Government to use resources more efficiently and avoid duplication, but also create more effective strategies for mobilizing capital for the forestry sector.

The role of digital technologies for fostering sustainability and efficiency in forest-based supply chains is well acknowledged and motivated several studies in the scope of precision forestry. Sensor technologies can collect relevant data in forest-based supply chains, comprising all activities from within forests and the production of the woody raw material to its transformation into marketable forest-based products. Advanced planning systems can help to support decisions of the various entities in the supply chain, e.g., forest owners, harvest companies, haulage companies, and forest product processing industry. Such tools can help to deal with the complex interdependencies between different entities, often with opposing objectives and actions—which may increase efficiency of forest-based supply chains. This paper analyzes contemporary literature dealing with digital technologies in forest-based supply chains and summarizes the state-of-the-art digital technologies for real-time data collection on forests, product flows, and forest operations, as well as planning systems and other decision support systems in use by supply chain actors. Higher sustainability and efficiency of forest-based supply chains require a seamless information flow to foster integrated planning of the activities over the supply chain—thereby facilitating seamless data exchange between the supply chain entities and foster new forms of collaboration. Therefore, this paper deals with data exchange and multi-entity collaboration aspects in combination with interoperability challenges related with the integration among multiple process data collection tools and advanced planning systems. Finally, this interdisciplinary review leads to the discussion of relevant guidelines that can guide future research and integration projects in this domain.

Exactly how do forest bureaucracies manoeuvre to regain power and maximise benefits in the bewildering legal, financial, and administrative field of forest decentralisation? Based on a review of thirty management plans, stakeholder consultations, intensive interactions with six forest user groups, forest officials, and donor project employees in Nepal, we document the mechanisms of legal-sounding re-centralisation. The central tenet is that bureaucratically established procedures, which are not required by law but treated as if they were, are used to impose regular revisions of community forest management plans. Meagre government or more generous donor budgets financed the revisions. Forest bureaucrats and/or consultants did the work and benefitted financially. None of the approaches, however, lived up to technical, scientific standards or followed stipulated participatory processes. The revised plans were almost identical to their previous versions and differences mostly a result of mere desk exercises to fulfil donor requirements and government orders, at least on paper. While legitimised by a perceived promotion of rational, technical sound, and equitable forest governance, the main function of plan revisions appears to be strengthening or re-establishing the forest bureaucracy's control over community forest resources which allows forest bureaucrats to tap into donor project and forest product value chains.

The Timber Legality Verification System (SVLK) is an instrument stipulated by the Government of Indonesia to build legitimacy on Indonesian forestry governance policies, especially those related to the utilization and distribution of timber forest products. The objective of SVLK is to cut the supply chain of illegal timber from the forest management unit to the market, through timber legality assurance. Since the enactment of SVLK in 2009, there has been no evaluation of the SVLK policy to measure its effectiveness. This study aimed to evaluate the success of SVLK in supporting the improvement of forestry governance. The analytical method used by this study is a descriptive formal evaluation. Interviews were conducted to representatives of four related stakeholder groups: six persons from timber forest product associations, five persons from three government agencies, one person from NGO, and one person from academia. The results of the study indicated that SVLK policy has quite successfully supported the improvement of forestry governance. In this regard, improvement is figured as 46% of law enforcement, 45% of accountability, 43% of participation, 42% of transparency, and 31% of coordination. It can be concluded that the SVLK policy has been quite successful in improving foresty governance.

Community forest management (CFM) systems have been implemented in developing countries as forest conservation initiatives with community development objectives. Women are often active in CFM by participating in non-timber forest product harvesting and management. Given the increasing presence of women in CFM, this study assesses whether participating in community forest management gives females more household decision-making power, a proxy for empowerment. This is a relevant issue because many development policies are implemented with female empowerment objectives, yet no existing rigorous quantitative studies have examined whether women's participation in CFM empowers them. Using an ordered logistic regression and an instrumental variable method, we analyze a household-level survey of forest-dwelling residents living in the Maya Biosphere Reserve in northern Guatemala. We find that female's participation in CFM increases her intra-household bargaining power on average. The results demonstrate that CFM systems can have development benefits that extend beyond increased household income and welfare.

The topic of social capital has been gaining many concerns from social researchers throughout the world, especially in collective action perspective. This study aimed to describe the organizational activities of the local forest management practices ( parak and rimbo ) as a social capital in collective action perspective. The research method is a case study of Koto Malintang and Simancuang people in West Sumatra. Collecting data was conducted by unstructured interviews, field observations, and document studies. Data analysis uses categorization and coding, document analysis, and historical analysis. Our findings were described in the context of decision-making, resources management and mobilization, communication, and conflict resolution. Collective action for decision-making involved the acquisition, allocation, and distribution mechanisms to divide land and forest product among local people. In the context of resources management and mobilization, they applied kinship relations among families, sub-clans, and clans to manage their resources. They then communicated their needs in any formal and informal meetings. When a conflict occurred in related to forest utilization, they applied an adat court to make a win-win solution. Nevertheless, the challenges of collective action are still about the resources availability, benefit equity, and external supports

Tropical rainforests harbor a high diversity of tree species, offering a potentially rich array of timber (TFP) and non-timber (NTFP) forest products. The supply of such products has been commonly evaluated at the local (plot) scale; however, little is known about how their availability and diversity change at the landscape scale, particularly in heterogeneous environments. This information is critical in designing landscape forest management programs. Here, we assess the extent to which the frequency, abundance, diversity, composition and productivity (aboveground biomass) of tree assemblages with potential forest products (PFPs) change across three landscape units (LUs) that differ in soil and topographic conditions. The study was carried out in a well-conserved old-growth tropical rainforest in southeastern Mexico. Three plots (0.5 ha each) were established per LU, in which all trees ≥ 10 cm were inventoried, taxonomically identified and assigned to eight forest product categories. General linear models, multiple regression and ordination analysis (CCA) were used to assess structural and compositional changes in the tree assemblages supplying different PFPs among LUs and along soil physicochemical gradients. More than half (94 species, 57%) of the total number of identified species (165) had one or more PFPs, mostly related to timber products. Ordination analysis showed that the abundance of species with different PFPs has a heterogeneous distribution among LUs, mostly related to changes in soil nitrogen, pH and aluminum saturation. Variation among LUs in terms of tree biomass was strongly driven by soil available phosphorus and soil physiological depth. Each LU had a different potential to provide forest products, producing a diverse mosaic of PFPs within the landscape. Decisions concerning sustainable forest management should consider such variability in the availability and diversity of forest products across landscapes, as well as the environmental factors that govern this spatial variation.

Most Nepalese rural households adopt diversified strategies of income generation and use products directly collected from forests. To analyse the influence of livelihood strategy on forest product utilisation, a survey of 336 rural households in lowland Nepal was conducted. Four livelihood strategies were identified by means of a Principal Component Analysis based on income variables, followed by hierarchical cluster analysis. Two livelihood strategies are assigned to on-farm activities and two to off-farm activities. The off-farm based strategies were found to result in higher household incomes. To test for differences across the livelihood strategies, additional socio-demographic variables, physical assets and location information have been analysed using ANOVA. The forest product utilisation behaviour of the households differs significantly between livelihood strategies. The households adopting a subsistence-based strategy collect the most forest products while achieving the lowest total income. However, a general influence of the total household income on the forest utilisation intensity is not confirmed. Households receiving remittances from abroad achieve the highest incomes but still collect forest products. The group of most forest-dependent households is mainly characterised by living near the forest and far from city centres with commodity and labour markets, and by having low education and a young head of household. The households relying mainly on private business income have the lowest forest product utilisation and are characterised by the highest education, proximity to markets and greatest area of agricultural land.

Studies report different findings concerning the climate benefits of bioenergy, in part due to varying scope and use of different approaches to define spatial and temporal system boundaries. We quantify carbon balances for bioenergy systems that use biomass from forests managed with long rotations, employing different approaches and boundary conditions. Two approaches to represent landscapes and quantify their carbon balances - expanding vs. constant spatial boundaries - are compared. We show that for a conceptual forest landscape, constructed by combining a series of time-shifted forest stands, the two approaches sometimes yield different results. We argue that the approach that uses constant spatial boundaries is preferable because it captures all carbon flows in the landscape throughout the accounting period. The approach that uses expanding system boundaries fails to accurately describe the carbon fluxes in the landscape due to incomplete coverage of carbon flows and influence of the stand-level dynamics, which in turn arise from the way temporal system boundaries are defined on the stand level. Modelling of profit-driven forest management using location-specific forest data shows that the implications for carbon balance of management changes across the landscape ( which are partly neglected when expanding system boundaries are used) depend on many factors such as forest structure and forest owners' expectations of market development for bioenergy and other wood products. Assessments should not consider forest-based bioenergy in isolation but should ideally consider all forest products and how forest management planning as a whole is affected by bioenergy incentives - and how this in turn affects carbon balances in forest landscapes and forest product pools. Due to uncertainties, we modelled several alternative scenarios for forest products markets. We recommend that future work consider alternative scenarios for other critical factors, such as policy options and energy technology pathways.

The understanding of interaction between rural people and forest products is one of the challenges faced while balancing forest product utilization with forest conservation in Myanmar. This study aims to contribute an effort to such challenges by analyzing the interaction of rural households with forest products in Myanmar. Data were collected using face-to-face questionnaire interviews with 218 households and conducting a rapid tree inventory across 132 circular random plots in selected rural communities around four townships of the Katha District. The empirical results indicate that the 95% of rural households were entirely dependent on forest products. The survey documented 13 main forest products and 54 tree species, which were primarily used for household consumption. Low-income households compared with medium- and high-income households with low educational level (p<0.05) and a small agricultural land area (p<0.05) were found to be more forest-dependent households. Illegal logging, mining, fuel-wood collection, slash-and-burn agriculture, and the establishment of forest plantations were reported as the main causes of forest products depletion. Findings from this study, although at a microlevel, can be used by the Myanmar Forestry Department as baseline information to improve community-based forest management activities.

The concept of sustainable forest management has emerged in early 1990s’ as a vision of forest management in all over the world. In Sri Lanka, avoiding deforestation and improving the forest resources are the preliminary step towards sustainable forest management. Forest policies and strategies that were taken at various times gave greater concerns to solve deforestation problem and improve forest resources through sustainable manner. This paper attempts to discuss National forest policy of Sri Lanka and explore forest policy on sustainable management of forestry resources which are under the supervision of forest Department. Furthermore this paper makes some recommendation for better implementation of forest policies for future sustainability in the state forest resources. The Forest policy in Sri Lanka has changed with the time. The history of establishment of policies for the management of forest was stated in King Devanampiyatissa period of 246 B.C. Ancient agrarian society utilize forest and forest product, while maintaining its ecological balance. The first scientific policy for forestry sector in Sri Lanka was formulated by the British in 1929. The main objective of this forest policy is forest management focused on maximum out of quality timber. After the independent in Sri Lanka from the British in 1948, policy for forestry sector was modified in 1953, 1980 and later in 1995 The priorities of the policy changes focus on conservation of natural value of forest, raise the unit productivity of the forests land and enhance beneficial of the rural population.Forest Department with limited human and other resources, hierarchical management structure, political influence, lack of policy and lack of institutional and community support has recognized the requirement of appropriate policies, institutional reform and capacity building for promote sustainable livelihood and Sustainable forest management.

A rainforest can be modeled as a dynamic asset subject to various risks, including risk of fire. Any small part of the forest can be in one of two states: either untouched by forest fire, or already damaged by fire, in which case there is both a local forest loss and increased dryness over a broader area. In this paper, two Bellman equations are constructed, one for unharmed forest and a second for already burnt forest. The analysis solves the two equations for the total expected asset values in each of the two states, assuming that asset returns have a constant growth rate over time. The equations are used for deriving the marginal value of standing (unburnt) rainforest, equivalent to the expected discounted value loss when losing a small additional forest patch. The paper shows that marginal forest value is increased by the additional dryness and forest fire risk that follow from forest fragmentation when additional forest is lost locally. Both forest fires and dryness here serve as “multipliers” to the basic services return loss, within and outside the forest. The paper also presents a framework for calibrating the impact of the forest fire risk component on forest value.

We estimate the climate effects of directing forest management in Sweden towards increased carbon storage in forests with more land set-aside for protection, or towards increased forest production for the substitution of carbon-intensive materials and fossil fuels, relative to a reference case of current forest management. We develop various scenarios of forest management and biomass use to estimate the carbon balances of the forest systems, including ecological and technological components, and their impacts on the climate in terms of radiative forcing. The scenario with increased set-aside area and the current level of forest residue harvest resulted in lower cumulative carbon emissions compared to the reference case for the first 90 years, but then showed higher emissions as reduced forest harvest led to higher carbon emissions from energy and material systems. For the reference case of current forest management, increased harvest of forest residues gave increased climate benefits. The most climatically beneficial alternative, expressed as reduced cumulative radiative forcing, in both the short and long terms is a strategy aimed at high forest production, high residue recovery rate, and high efficiency utilization of harvested biomass. Active forest management with high harvest levels and efficient forest product utilization will provide more climate benefit, compared to reducing harvest and storing more carbon in the forest.

Background: Predictive models shed light on aboveground fungal yield dynamics and can assist decision-making in forestry by integrating this valuable non-wood forest product into forest management planning. However, the currently existing models are based on rather local data and, thus, there is a lack of predictive tools to monitor mushroom yields on larger scales. Results: This work presents the first empirical models for predicting the annual yields of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms and related ecosystem services in Pinus sylvestris and Pinus pinaster stands in northern Spain, using a long-term dataset suitable to account for the combined effect of meteorological conditions and stand structure. Models were fitted for the following groups of fungi separately: all ectomycorrhizal mushrooms, edible mushrooms and marketed mushrooms. Our results show the influence of the weather variables (mainly precipitation) on mushroom yields as well as the relevance of the basal area of the forest stand that follows a right-skewed unimodal curve with maximum predicted yields at stand basal areas of 30–40 m2∙ha− 1. Conclusion: These models are the first empirical models for predicting the annual yields of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms in Pinus sylvestris and Pinus pinaster stands in northern Spain, being of the highest resolution developed to date and enable predictions of mushrooms productivity by taking into account weather conditions and forests’ location, composition and structure. This work was partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (grant number RTI2018-099315-A-I00), by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitivity (MINECO) (Grant number AGL2015–66001-C3), by the Cost action FP1203: European Non-Wood Forest Products Network, and by the European project StarTree – Multipurpose trees and non-wood forest products (Grant number 311919). Sergio de Miguel and José Antonio Bonet benefited from a Serra-Húnter Fellowship provided by the Generalitat of Catalunya.

International audience; AbstractKey messageIn a major Australian city, water supply has been decoupled from forests as a result of management and climate change. Water yield and quality are closely related to forest cover and have been manipulated through broad-scale intervention. The forests remain important for biodiversity protection and considering water as a forest product will fund interventions that maintain the forest’s environmental values.ContextPerth, an Australian city of 2 million people and a potable water demand of 300 GL/year, occurs in a region that has experienced a decline in rainfall and a major reduction in surface runoff to water supply reservoirs over the last 40 years. This has led to a major impact on water policies, with the collapse of surface water supply from forested watersheds resulting in the almost complete substitution of Perth’s water supply with groundwater and desalinated water. Thus, water supply has been decoupled from forests and forest management processes.AimsIn this paper, we review the interactions between forest cover and water supply in the drying environment of south-western Australia, exploring studies on the hydrological effects of extensive deforestation for agricultural development, widespread reforestation, forest management, and reduced annual rainfall. We draw conclusions applicable to other regions that are experiencing the combined impacts of climate change and pressures from land-use intensification.ResultsWe find that streamflow and water quality are clearly linked to forest cover and this is affected by both climate and forest management. Streamflow increases with a reduction of forest cover (through deforestation or thinning) and decreases with reforestation and reduced rainfall. Stream salinity increases with deforestation and decreases with reforestation. Hydrological responses occur where forest cover treatments have been applied and maintained at watershed-scales. Surprisingly, where water yield or quality has been improved, this has not been rewarded financially and there is a need to develop methods of financing treatments to maintain streamflow.ConclusionWhereas forests were initially maintained for water and timber supply, with biodiversity protection as a co-benefit without a defined value, the decoupling of forests from water supply has substantially reduced the financial resources for any form of direct forest management. As the forests remain important for biodiversity protection, a key recommendation is to consider water as a forest product and thus provide funds for watershed-scale treatments, such as forest thinning, that maintain the forest’s environmental values in a drying climate.

Mountains are critical ecosystems that have a strong influence far beyond their topographic boundaries. More than 50 million people inhabit the Himalayas, and more than one billion people depend on the ecosystem services they provide. Anthropogenic activities have driven concurrent deforestation and regeneration in the Himalayas, and interventions to reduce forest loss and promote forest recovery require a synthetic understanding of the complex and interacting drivers of forest change. We conducted a systematic review of case studies from 1984 to 2020 (n = 137) and combined a system dynamics approach with a causal network analysis to identify, map and articulate the relationships between the drivers, actors and mechanisms of forest change across the entirety of the Himalayan mountain range. In total, the analysis revealed five proximate drivers, 12 underlying drivers, two institutional factors and five ‘other’ factors connected by a total of 221 linkages. Forest change dynamics have been dominated by widespread smallholder agriculture, extensive non-timber forest product extraction, widespread commercial and non-commercial timber extraction, and high rates of agricultural abandonment. Underlying drivers include population growth, poor agricultural productivity, international support for development projects, and successful community forest management systems. Contradictory linkages emerge from a combination of contextual factors, which can have negative impacts on conservation goals. Global processes such as shifts in governance, transnational infrastructure-development programs, economic slowdowns, labor migrations and climate change threaten to destabilize established dynamics and change forest trajectories. The underlying and proximate drivers interact through multiple pathways that can be utilized to achieve conservation goals. Based on this analysis, we highlight five thematic focus areas to curtail forest loss and promote recovery: (1) decreasing the population pressure, (2) sustainable increase of agricultural productivity, (3) strengthening of forest management institutions, (4) leveraging tourism growth and sustainable infrastructure expansion, and (5) fuel transition and establishing firewood plantations on degraded land. The broader adoption of systems thinking, and specifically a system dynamics approach and causal network analysis, will greatly enhance the rigour of policy development, help design site-specific interventions at multiple spatial scales which can respond to local and global changes, and guide deeper inquiry to enhance our understanding of driver-forest dynamics.

Agent-based models are popular in common-pool resource management to represent complex systems and stimulate collective action and management, where they are used to evaluate scenarios of stakeholders’ choice in participatory simulations. We developed the “CoComForest” (COllaborative COMmunity FOREST management) model to support community forest management (CFM) and non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting in Nan Province, northern Thailand. The model was used as a computer-based role-playing game to support sharing of perceptions and knowledge among stakeholders, and in participatory simulations to explore future CFM scenarios. The Unified Modelling Language was used to build the conceptual model, subsequently implemented under the CORMAS (COmmon-pool Resource and Multi-Agent System) simulation platform. Several tests were conducted in the laboratory for verification and calibration before using this tool with 21 diverse stakeholders during a field workshop. Three different participatory gaming and simulation sessions were organized. The first one focused on the co-validation of the model with participants. They accepted most of the model functionalities and the scheduling of the rounds of play. The model was used in the subsequent two sessions to simulate the scenarios of firebreak establishment and introduction of outsiders intensively harvesting NTFPs, respectively. The results showed that the intensive harvesting practices of outsiders accelerated the depletion of resources, whereas the prevention of wildfire by establishing firebreaks could increase the resource availability in the landscape. The debriefing session at the end of the workshop focused on the analysis of simulation results and the relationships between the players’ decision-making and their actual circumstances. Individual in-depth interviews conducted after the workshop helped to evaluate the use of this model with local stakeholders. Most participants considered the model as a useful common representation of the system they manage collectively. Its use in participatory simulations facilitated communication among the stakeholders searching for an adapted and acceptable collective action plan to improve CFM at the sub-district level in order to prevent the overharvesting of NTFPs by outsiders.

SUMMARY While gender issues are becoming increasingly integrated in international environment and development policies, the simplistic manner in which they are treated holds scant promise for real change. In the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) program in Burkina Faso, women are targeted in projects promoting non-timber forest product commercialisation aimed to incentivise forest conservation. Such policies are often based on essentialist assumptions about what men and women do, ignoring that social relations of inequality need to be understood in context. Drawing on intersectional theory this study analyses REDD+ documents, and data about resource use in two villages in Burkina Faso, showing how the participatory approach in Burkina's REDD+ program is unlikely to encourage currently marginalised voices to be heard in existing forest management organisations. Rather, the lack of acknowledgement of intersecting relations of inequality leads to crucial aspects of NTFP res...

In terms of global forest product market developments, the twenty-first century has been in many ways very different from the twentieth century—striking structural changes have taken place. The global forest sector can be interpreted to be in a phase of creative destruction—an era characterized by a major decline of a number of established products and businesses, and simultaneous emergence of new products and businesses. The forest product research field appears to be lacking the tools for formally assessing the significance and extent of the changing production and consumption patterns. That is, the mainstream of quantitative forest product market research has relied to a large extent on forest sector modelling, focusing on questions related to the impacts of policies, sufficiency of wood resources, trends in the production of primary wood products, and international competitiveness. In doing so, they have paid less emphasis on some of the equally important questions, such as value added development, employment issues, structural changes, the diffusion of new products and services, and the realistic contribution of the forest-based sector to the global sustainability challenges. When considering the importance of global forest product markets to the economy, employment and forests, and the changes taking place in the markets, the scale of research on forest product markets is alarmingly low. This review clearly points to a need to significantly increase the volume of academic research and education on the global and regional forest-based product markets.

A challenging issue in landscape ecology is the evaluation of changes in a forest landscape following a disturbance. This evaluation usually entails examining changes in the forest inventory, which represents the best information available for a given forest region. Our aim was to extend existing methods used to evaluate forest inventory to include additional variables, such as value-based forest product options, wood fibre attributes, and ecosystem services. Inclusion of such variables in forest inventory evaluations would allow research results to be presented from an economic perspective, which is often required for policy development and forest management decision-making. We developed a value-based framework to evaluate forest inventory and implemented it in the wood fibre value simulation model. We then used a local data set from Manitoba, Canada, to show how the model can be applied to the mapping of new inventory layers to facilitate the evaluation of landscape changes. Five new inventory layers are mapped including bioenergy and heating value that can be directly used for evaluating landscape changes, and wood density, fibre length, and pulp yield, which can be combined with total wood volume to derive new variables or indices to express changes in landscape conditions. Our model can contribute to the assessment of landscape changes by indicating the values a forest can have when it is used for different conservation or utilization purposes. The model can also support improved decision-making with respect to the management of forest resources.

Forest stand structure could be used as one of the variables in deciding the possibility to harvest forest product. On logged-over forests, data and information over stand structure could become the basis for decision making for harvesting. To measure and analyze yield on logged-over forest, each forest management unit (IUPHHK) is obligated to establish Permanent Sample Plots (PSPs) for monitoring the growth and yield of the managed stand. In some of the plots, maintenances and thinning treatments are applied while other plots are not treated. The results, after several years of observations, showed that there was a difference in stand structure (tree number) of each diameter class both in plots with treatment and without treatment. The rate of in-growth, up-growth and mortality varied between plots without and with treatment in each diameter class and length of time after harvesting. The average diameter increment of trees in the stands of the untreated plots was higher (0.60 cm yr -1 ) compared to the treated plots (0.55 cm yr -1 ).

Over 80% of Sub-Saharan population depend on woodfuels as their main energy source, mainly firewood and charcoal. In Burkina Faso, despite the absence of reliable studies, this dependency is expected to continue and even increase in the next decades. With some of the highest annual population increments and lowest indexes of human development in the world, Burkina Faso is also among the most vulnerable countries to climate change. This study examines the challenges of governance, production and use of woodfuels in Burkina Faso on the basis of an extensive literature review and the views elicited through 13 in-depth interviews with local experts. With poverty as the underlying driver, agricultural expansion is identified as the principle driver of deforestation, followed by woodfuel production. Intensification of agriculture, agroforestry practices and promotion of on non-timber forest product businesses are some of the key opportunities recognised. While decentralisation is seen as an opportunity for sustainable resource management, the lack of resources, unclear tenure regime and corruption need to be urgently addressed. An improved management system in the Forest Management Units is also needed to avoid forest degradation. The 20 concrete recommendations made in the study should be further investigated for their consideration in a future wood energy strategy.

Forests are an increasingly important source of feedstock for bioenergy as global efforts to mitigate atmospheric CO2 concentrations increase. In keeping with the principles of sustainable forest management, it is important that feedstock procurement not have negative impacts on the environment, including biodiversity. Impacts of land use, including forest management, can be evaluated along all stages in the production of these goods and services, using life cycle assessment (LCA), which is a potentially powerful tool for organizing and evaluating the impacts of production. There is growing recognition of the need to integrate land-use impacts into LCA for forest products such as bioenergy, especially on biodiversity. Integrating quantitative indicators of biodiversity into LCAs of biomass production systems is particularly challenging because biodiversity is a multidimensional concept that can never be fully represented by a single number, and yet many proposed approaches rely on this. Reliance on a single metric oversimplifies ‘biodiversity’ and might lead to inappropriate conclusions on local land management practices. LCA is not suited to providing reliable site-specific assessment of forest product systems in regard to the complexities of biodiversity. Nevertheless, the global and comprehensive nature of LCA makes it a useful tool for preventing a shift in environmental problems or burdens across the value chain because of local land management decisions. In this context, complementary site-specific and/or regional studies or analyses may help mitigate against inaccurate conclusions being drawn from LCA. WIREs Energy Environ 2016, 5:670–683. doi: 10.1002/wene.211 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Forests in Kenya are threatened by unsustainable uses and conversion to alternative land uses. In spite of the consequences of forest degradation and biodiversity loss and reliance of communities on forests livelihoods, there is little empirical data on the role of forest resources in livelihoods of the local communities. Socioeconomic, demographic, and forest use data were obtained by interviewing 367 households. Forest product market survey was undertaken to determine prices of various forest products for valuation of forest use. Forest income was significant to households contributing 33% of total household income. Fuel wood contributed 50%, food (27%), construction material (18%), and fodder, and thatching material 5% to household forest income. Absolute forest income and relative forest income (%) were not significantly different across study locations and between ethnic groups. However, absolute forest income and relative forest income (%) were significantly different among wealth classes. Poor households were more dependent on forests resources. However, in absolute terms, the rich households derived higher forest income. These results provide valuable information on the role of forest resources to livelihoods and could be applied in developing forest conservation policies for enhanced ecosystem services and livelihoods.

Forests provide many benefits (e.g., esthetics, water purification, habitat, carbon sequestration) to humans when they are conserved. However, forest conservation efforts may conflict with other uses, particularly timber harvest. Incentives for forest conservation can be established through payment for ecosystem services (PES) policies. PES policies rely on forest valuation studies which traditionally have valued the whole forest, or characteristics of a forest. Methods that allow variability in estimated forest values over space can provide valuation information at a finer scale and aid in the optimization of PES policies. These spatially explicit values provide information critical to many policy decisions, particularly conservation prioritization and planning. Using moderate resolution satellite remote sensing (i.e., LandSat) and a forest use survey conducted in Kam Cha i, Thailand, methods to estimate forest product valuation for spatially heterogeneous plots are demonstrated. These estimates are produced using geographic information system (GIS) multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA). The MCDA method combines forest use data with associated travel costs and vegetation cover estimates to provide spatially explicit estimates of forest values. This information is then used to compare local use values against potential carbon credit values estimated from the literature. The results show that a majority of the forest plots have higher PES values than for local forest products. Some do not, however, which suggests a possible cause for resistance against potential PES policies implemented in these areas.

This article presents an analysis of the potential forest damage that occurred due to the COVID-19 pandemic in rural communities on the Forest Management Unit (FMUs). It focused on forest utilization and deforestation before and during the epidemic. Base on The data on online surveys using Google form instruments, Zoom meetings, and in-depth telephone interviews with the informants. The data of the research were analyzed descriptively using the mind mapping method. The data analysis shows that social and economic impacts potentially enhance the threat of forest resource utilization–increasing pressure on the forest due to the increase in forest product demand. Even though the government made efforts to minimize forest degradation and prevent illegal logging, the communities didn't follow the policy because there were no alternative solutions. The timber logging is carried out into a threat to forest degradation when it's not immediately prevented. The FMU needs to improve access to rural living near the forest to increase their forest income. These solutions are crucial for reducing illegal logging activities and forest degradation in the pandemic., Environmental science; COVID-19 pandemic; Social-economic impact; FMU; Forest degradation

Forest management in many developing nations aims to balance the needs of resource users and the ecological integrity of indigenous forests, in terms of both biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services, particularly carbon sequestration. While South Africa has legislated management policies to achieve this, implementation has been lacking, resulting in concern that unregulated resource use is compromising forest biodiversity. However, there is little information regarding resource use since these regulations were promulgated a decade ago. This study reports on the current nature and extent of forest product harvesting in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, which contains just under half of the country's indigenous forests. Extraction rates and target species of key products, namely poles, timber and bark, were assessed across six forests, representing five forest types. Harvest intensities indicated low to moderate levels of use, but there was considerable variation in levels of resource use at the forest-scale, illustrating the importance of site-specific assessments. Furthermore, resource use was species-specific, indicating that sustainability is dependent on the ecology of preferred species. Of concern was widespread commercial-scale bark harvesting; and relatively high timber extraction from a Pondoland scarp forest, a threatened forest type. We urge implementation of existing regulations, which distinguish between subsistence and commercial use; and commensurate capacitation of the new Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries. In the case of timber and bark, we recommend licencing of the de facto commercial harvesting taking place in order to promote regulation.

Forested ecosystems of the upper Great Lakes represent an extremely important natural resource for the region and the nation. They are the headwaters of the largest freshwater lake system in the world and harbour some of the most productive forest lands in North America. Extensive wetlands are interspersed through these forest types and are a key component to habitat, freshwater resources, and forest product values of the region. A major obstacle to address regulatory and conservation policy, as well as development of “Best Management Practices” on forest wetlands in this region, is a lack of information on basic functional processes and how forest management activities affect those processes. The loss of K on the whole-tree harvested and trench treatments was due primarily to reductions in the forest floor, since there was no difference in extractable K among those treatments in the mineral soil.

This paper uses a choice experiment conducted in Nepal during 2013 to estimate household-level willingness to participate in a village-level program under the Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation initiative requiring reductions in fuelwood collection, as a function of the price paid per unit of avoided carbon dioxide emissions. The analysis examines incentives to participate both in villages having formal community forest management, the core institution for implementing Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, and villages having only informal forest user groups. Contrary to previous findings in the literature about participation incentives, but in keeping with other recent studies of Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation pilots in Nepal, this study finds that relatively little emission reduction would take place at prices of $1.00 to $5.00 per ton of avoided carbon emissions. Formal community forests will almost certainly be the core institution within which Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation is implemented in Nepal and likely other countries. The study finds that average and median values of payment required for agreement to reduce fuelwood collection are substantially larger for formal forest user groups than in informal communities. This reflects that formal groups likely already have fuelwood collection restrictions in place, whereas informal groups may de facto permit open access extraction. The analysis also suggests that households that are part of informal groups react to Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation very differently than households that are formal group members. Broadly speaking, "underprivileged" formal group member households, such as those who are landless, female-headed, and poor, appear to be warier of fuelwood collection restrictions and thus require higher payments than average respondents. This difference does not appear to carry over to informal group members.

Maple syrup is an important non-timber forest product derived from the sap of the sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marshall). However, maple syrup producers are facing a diversity of challenges, including: potential range shifts in the maple resource; increasing variability in the timing, duration and yield of sap flow and syrup operations; invasive species, pests and diseases; and intergenerational land and business transfer challenges. Members of Maple Syrup Producer Associations in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan were surveyed to learn about their operations, adaptation strategies, concerns, and information needs. While many respondents indicated they have undertaken or plan to undertake adaptation activities, only 11% had done so out of specific concern over changing climate conditions. Climate-motivated activities included: being prepared to tap earlier and utilizing newer technology such as vacuum tubing or reverse osmosis to enhance sap collection and processing efficiency. Respondents were generally unlikely to consider planting climate-resilient maple cultivars or tapping trees other than sugar maple. They expressed the greatest concerns over tree health and forest pests, as well as their physical ability and family member interest to continue their operations. Boil season variability and weather issues were viewed with less concern. Respondents were generally optimistic that they can adapt to future conditions, likely in large measure through the adoption of new technologies, and they expect their syrup production levels to slightly increase in the future. If future climate scenarios play out, however, additional planning and adaptation strategies may be called for, particularly as they relate to forest health and productivity issues.