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Because atmospheric longwave radiation is one of the most fundamental elements of an expected climate change, there has been a strong interest in improving measurements and model calculations in recent years. Important questions are how reliable and consistent are atmospheric longwave radiation measurements and calculations and what are the uncertainties? The First International Pyrgeometer and Absolute Sky-scanning Radiometer Comparison, which was held at the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement program's Southern Great Plains site in Oklahoma, answers these questions at least for midlatitude summer conditions and reflects the state of the art for atmospheric longwave radiation measurements and calculations. The 15 participating pyrgeometers were all calibration-traced standard instruments chosen from a broad international community. Two new chopped pyrgeometers also took part in the comparison. An absolute sky-scanning radiometer (ASR), which includes a pyroelectric detector and a reference blackbody source, was used for the first time as a reference standard instrument to field calibrate pyrgeometers during clear-sky nighttime measurements. Owner-provided and uniformly determined blackbody calibration factors were compared. Remarkable improvements and higher pyrgeometer precision were achieved with field calibration factors. Results of nighttime and daytime pyrgeometer precision and absolute uncertainty are presented for eight consecutive days of measurements, during which period downward longwave irradiance varied between 260 and 420 W m−2. Comparisons between pyrgeometers and the absolute ASR, the atmospheric emitted radiance interferometer, and radiative transfer models LBLRTM and MODTRAN show a surprisingly good agreement of

Cloudy sky average photon path lengths were measured using the gamma band of oxygen near 628 nm on many days over Boulder, Colorado, using a zenith-looking spectrograph with a resolution of 0.8 nm. The approach allows accurate measurement of the average photon path length. Days characterized by relatively extensive cloud cover are examined here, which exhibit very large path length variations as the cloud fields overhead evolve. The ability of a plane parallel line-by-line model with a single uniform cloud layer to predict the measured O2 path lengths has been tested by constraining the model to the (independently) observed surface irradiance. Overall, its performance is quite good, which demonstrates that the relationship between the diffuse transmission by clouds and the average photon path length is consistent with plane parallel radiative transfer calculations for the conditions studied. Thus large errors in the cloud radiative transfer of such models, as suggested by some recent cloud absorption measurements, are not supported by this study. Furthermore, direct observations in the blue and red spectral regions do not support even a 1% differential absorption between these spectral regions.

Direct measurements of the absorption of downwelling visible radiation by nitrogen dioxide are presented. The data show that this gas can contribute significantly to local radiative forcing under certain conditions. The observed enhancements in nitrogen dioxide absorption are likely to be due both to pollution and to production by lightning in convective clouds. Case studies of several days of observations in Colorado reveal peak absorption of downwelling radiation by NO2 of up to 5–12%, corresponding to an estimated local radiative forcing that is likely to be in the range of 5–30 W/m2. The amount of local forcing associated with thunderstorm activity depends strongly upon the cloud optical depth and on where the NO2 resides within the clouds. These case studies suggest that NO2 can play a significant role in the absorption of radiation (including but not limited to anomalous cloud absorption) either under polluted conditions or when electrically active storms are considered.

We consider explanations for disagreements between models and measurements of clear-sky solar transmission. Data from four cloud-free days during the FIRE 1991 field experiment are studied. Our model simulations of solar broadband fluxes exceed measurements by about 10%, About half of this discrepancy occurs in the near-infrared spectral region. Ahout half of this discrepancy can be linked to the direct irradiance. These deviations suggest (1) model underestimates in near-infrared trace-gas absorption and (2) errors in visible diffuse fluxes. The near-infrared error in other models is generally less than the one associated with our model. Other models suggest more trace-gas absorption. However. variations among models are so large that they swamp current measurement errors such as uncertainties of the water vapor column. The visible diffuse flux error cannot he easily explained. We illustrate that a poor cosine response of solar flux instruments could have contributed. Also, underestimates of aerosol absorption could be a factor. There is clearly a need for measurements and comparisons at high spectral resolution to better quantify the sources of these errors. However. these comparisons will only he fruitful if we have confidence in the accuracy of our models and the accuracy of the data.

A UV spectroradiometer was installed at Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO), Hawaii, in July 1995. This instrument, based on a commercially available double monochromator, uses a diffuser mounted as a horizontal receptor inside a quartz dome and views the whole sky. The instrument scans over the 290–450 nm spectral range with a band pass of about 1 nm for each 5° of solar zenith angle (SZA). The UV irradiances measured at MLO are much more intense than at low-altitude midlatitude locations. For observations at SZA 45° the erythemally weighted UV irradiances can exceed 21 μW cm−2, which is approximately 15–20% greater than that seen at Lauder, New Zealand, for similar ozone amounts. The difference is primarily due to the higher altitude at MLO (3.4 km). For overhead Sun conditions at MLO the largest value of erythemal UV was 51.3±3.1 μW cm−2, which to our knowledge is the highest recorded any-where at the Earth's surface. UV irradiance is strongly correlated (inversely) with Dobson spectrophotometer total ozone measurements at MLO, with higher correlations at shorter wavelengths. The radiative amplification factor (RAF) for erythema at MLO is about 1.33±0.2 at SZA 45°.

An 8 year (July 1983 through June 1991) time series of daily and monthly mean surface solar irradiance has been produced for the globe using data from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) and a revised Bishop and Rossow [1991] algorithm. We present a detailed validation analysis of the ISCCP solar irradiance fields with contemporaneous surface observations at buoys, at remote islands, and from the Global Energy Balance Archives (GEBA) [Ohmura et al., 1991]. The validation is hampered to some degree by the scale difference between the 280 km ISCCP product and the single-point measurements, some of which are affected by orographic clouds and other local meteorological effects. Our analysis suggests criteria for siting of island or coastal monitoring locations to minimize such biases. Particularly, eastward or poleward facing oceanic exposures are to be avoided. In addition, we suggest that deep sea buoys should be investigated for validation of oceanic surface fluxes. At open-ocean, clean-air sites, the ISCCP product is shown to be good to within 10 W m−2 in the monthly mean. The high-frequency (daily) systematics of solar irradiance variability at the open-ocean sites are also well duplicated by the ISCCP product. An identifiable error in the revised solar irradiance product is the neglect of spatially and temporally varying aerosol extinction. This error, when translated into an equivalent aerosol extinction coefficient, can be as large as 0.6 in known polluted and mineral dust-affected regions. We cannot determine additional satellite sensor calibration errors beyond those already corrected in the ISCCP processing. This uniquely long data set has been publicly available since 1994 at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. The data documents significant differences in solar fluxes received by the major oceans as well as significant flux variability on seasonal to interannual timescales.

We assemble data on the Pinatubo aerosol from space, air, and ground measurements, develop a composite picture, and assess the consistency and uncertainties of measurement and retrieval techniques. Satellite infrared spectroscopy, particle morphology, and evaporation temperature measurements agree with theoretical calculations in showing a dominant composition of H2SO4-H20 mixture, with H2SO4 weight fraction of 65-80% for most stratospheric temperatures and humidities. Important exceptions are (1) volcanic ash, present at all heights initially and just above the tropopause until at least March 1992, and (2) much smaller H2SO4 fractions at the low temperatures of high-latitude winters and the tropical tropopause. Laboratory spectroscopy and calculations yield wavelength- and temperature-dependent refractive indices for the H2SO4-H20 droplets. These permit derivation of particle size information from measured optical depth spectra, for comparison to impactor and optical-counter measurements. All three techniques paint a generally consistent picture of the evolution of R(sub eff), the effective radius. In the first month after the eruption, although particle numbers increased greatly, R(sub eff) outside the tropical core was similar to preeruption values of approx. 0.1 to 0.2 microns, because numbers of both small (r 0.6 microns) particles increased. In the next 3-6 months, extracore R(sub eff) increased to approx. 0.5 microns, reflecting particle growth through condensation and coagulation. Most data show that R(sub eff) continued to increase for about 1 year after the eruption. R(sub eff) values up to 0.6 - 0.8 microns or more are consistent with 0.38 - 1 micron optical depth spectra in middle to late 1992 and even later. However, in this period, values from in situ measurements are somewhat less. The difference might reflect in situ undersampling of the very few largest particles, insensitivity of optical depth spectra to the smallest particles, or the inability of flat spectra to place an upper limit on particle size. Optical depth spectra extending to wavelengths lambda > 1 micron are required to better constrain R(sub eff), especially for R(sub eff) > 0.4 microns. Extinction spectra computed from in situ size distributions are consistent with optical depth measurements; both show initial spectra with lambda(sub max) 0.3 microns) and relatively flat extinction spectra (0.4 - 1 microns) are among the longest-lived indicators of Pinatubo volcanic influence. They persist for years after the peaks in number, mass, surface area, and optical depth at all wavelengths

[1] The surface radiation budget (SRB) is modulated by smoke aerosols that attenuate solar and emit thermal infrared radiation. Direct radiative impacts of smoke depend on several factors that lead to large uncertainties in assessing how wildfires influence climate. To quantify the impact of smoke on the SRB, evaluations of the longwave (LW) as well as the shortwave (SW) radiative forcing efficiencies (RFElw and RFEsw) are needed. Radiative forcing efficiency (RFE) is defined as the change in net irradiance per unit increase in aerosol optical depth at 500 nm (AOD500). An opportunity to evaluate RFElw and RFEsw of smoke presented itself on 6–7 September 2010, when a wildfire burned west of Boulder, Colorado. Smoke passed over sites where SRB, atmospheric state, and AOD measurements were being made. Values of RFE were derived empirically from coincident SRB and AOD measurements made over a range of Sun angles. RFEsw ranged between −65 and −194 Wm−2AOD500−1 as solar zenith angles decreased from 73° to 34° (at solar noon). RFElw averaged ∼10 (±7) Wm−2AOD500−1 throughout the daylight hours. During the event, the diurnally integrated value of net RFE was −51.5 Wm−2AOD500−1, revealing the dominance of SW cooling over LW warming attributed to the smoke. In response, the surface under the smoke plume cooled by 2°–5°C during the day, depending on the smoke's opacity. No evaluation of nighttime effects were possible, although very slight warming may have occurred owing to thermal emissions from the plume.

Based on monthly-3-hourly and 3-hourly mean surface radiative fluxes and their associated meteorological parameters for 2004 from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project-FD (ISCCP-FD) and the Radiative Flux Analysis method-Produced Surface Observations (RFA-PSO) for 15 high-quality-controlled surface stations, operated by the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN), the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Surface Radiation budget network (SURFRAD), this work, goes beyond the previous validation for FD against surface observation by introducing the Meteorological Similarity Comparison Method (MSCM) to make a more precise, mutual evaluation of both FD and PSO products. The comparison results in substantial uncertainty reduction and provides reasonable physical explanations for the flux differences. This approach compares fluxes for cases where the atmospheric and surface physical properties (specifically, the input parameters for radiative transfer model) are as close as possible to the values determined at the observational sites by matching the RFA-produced cloud fraction (CF) and/or optical thickness (Tau), etc., or alternatively, by directly changing the model input variables for FD to match PSO values, and using such-produced matched sub-datasets to make more accurate comparisons based on more similar meteorological environments between FD and PSO. The crucial part is the availability ofmore » flux-associated meteorological parameters from RFA-PSO, which was only recently made available that makes this work possible. For surface downwelling shortwave(SW) flux (SWdn) and its two components, diffuse (Dif) and direct (Dir), uncertainty for monthly mean is 15, 15 and 17 W/m2, respectively, smaller than the separately estimated uncertainty values from both FD and PSO. When applying MSCM by reducing their CF difference, the differences can be reduced by a factor of 2. The strength of MSCM is particularly shown in the comparisons of diurnal variations. For clear sky, reducing the FD values of aerosol optical depth (AOD) by 50% to approximately match the PSO values brings all downward SW flux components into substantial agreement. For cloudy scenes, when both CF and Tau are matched to within 0.1 – 0.25 and ~10, respectively, the majority of the SW flux components have nearly-perfect agreement between FD and PSO. The best restriction differences are not zero indicates the influence of other parameters that are not accounted for yet. For longwave (LW) fluxes, general evaluation also confirms uncertainty values for FD and PSO less than separately estimated. When applying MSCM to CF and surface air temperature, the agreement is substantially improved. For downwelling LW diurnal variation comparison, FD shows good agreement with PSO for both RFA-defined or true clear sky but overestimates the amplitude for cloudy sky by 3-7 W/m2, which may be caused by different sensitivities to cirrus clouds. For upwelling LW diurnal cycle, the situation is reversed; FD now underestimates the diurnal amplitude for all and clear sky but generally agrees for overcast (CF > 0.7). The combined effect of downwelling and upwelling LW fluxes results in FD's underestimates of the diurnal variation of the net-LW-loss for all the scenes by up to 10 W/m2, although the daily mean net loss is more accurate. Therefore, in terms of amplitude and phase, both FD and PSO seem to have caught correct diurnal variations.« less

The Arctic climate is modulated, in part, by atmospheric aerosols that affect the distribution of radiant energy passing through the atmosphere. Aerosols affect the surface-atmosphere radiation balance directly through interactions with solar and terrestrial radiation and indirectly through interactions with cloud particles. Better quantification of the radiative forcing by different types of aerosol is needed to improve predictions of future climate. During April 2009, the airborne campaign Pan-Arctic Measurements and Arctic Regional Climate Model Inter-comparison Project (PAM-ARCMIP) was conducted. The mission was organized by Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research of Germany and utilized their research aircraft, Polar-5. The goal was to obtain a snapshot of surface and atmospheric conditions over the central Arctic prior to the onset of the melt season. Characterizing aerosols was one objective of the campaign. Standard Sun photometric procedures were adopted to quantify aerosol optical depth AOD, providing a three-dimensional view of the aerosol, which was primarily haze from anthropogenic sources. Independent, in situ measurements of particle size distribution and light extinction, derived from airborne lidar, are used to corroborate inferences made using the AOD results. During April 2009, from the European to the Alaskan Arctic, from sub-Arctic latitudes to near the pole, the atmosphere was variably hazy with total column AOD at 500 nm ranging from similar to 0.12 to >0.35, values that are anomalously high compared with previous years. The haze, transported primarily from Eurasian industrial regions, was concentrated within and just above the surface-based temperature inversion layer. Extinction, as measured using an onboard lidar system, was also greatest at low levels, where particles tended to be slightly larger than at upper levels. Black carbon (BC) (soot) was observed at all levels sampled, but at moderate to low concentrations compared with historical records. BC was highest near the North Pole, suggesting there had been an accumulation of soot within the Arctic vortex. Few, optically thick elevated aerosol layers were observed along the flight track, although independent lidar observations reveal evidence of the passage of volcanic plumes, which may have contributed to abnormally high values of AOD above 4 km. Enhanced opacity at higher altitudes during the campaign is attributed to an accumulation of industrial pollutants in the upper troposphere in combination with volcanic aerosol resulting from the March-April 2009 eruptions of Mount Redoubt in Alaska. The presence of Arctic haze during April 2009 is estimated to have reduced the net shortwave irradiance by similar to 2-5 W m(-2), resulting in a slight cooling of the surface.

[1] This study investigates recent variations in downwelling surface solar radiation inferred from a comprehensive set of ground-based observational records updated for the period 2000–2005. Surface radiation data beyond the year 2000 are particularly interesting as they provide independent and complementary information to the ambitious satellite programs which became operational with the beginning of the new millennium. The surface records suggest a continuation of the surface solar brightening beyond 2000 at numerous stations in Europe and the United States, as well as parts of east Asia (Korea). Surface solar radiation variations in Europe after 2000 are dominated by a large positive anomaly in the year 2003 with its unprecedented summer heat wave, exceeding 10 Wm−2 on an annual and 20 Wm−2 on a summer mean basis in central Europe. The brightening seen at sites in Antarctica during the 1990s, influenced by a recovery from the low atmospheric transparency after the Mount Pinatubo volcanic eruption in 1991, fades after 2000. The brightening tendency also seems to level off at sites in Japan. In China there is some indication for a renewed dimming, after the stabilization in the 1990s. A continuation of the long-lasting dimming is also noted at the sites in India. Overall, the available data suggest continuation of the brightening beyond the year 2000 at numerous locations, yet less pronounced and coherent than during the 1990s, with more regions with no clear changes or declines. Therefore, globally, greenhouse warming after 2000 may be less modulated by surface solar variations than in prior decades.

[1] We conduct analyses of all-sky and clear-sky surface downwelling shortwave radiation and bulk cloud properties using data from several Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Surface Radiation (SURFRAD) network sites spanning the years 1995 through 2007. Five ARM sites are aggregated to study downwelling shortwave tendencies on global circulation model grid scales, and then six SURFRAD sites plus the central ARM site are aggregated to study the wider scale of the continental United States. We show that widespread brightening has occurred over the continental United States as represented by these measurements over the 12 years of the study, averaging about 8 W m−2/decade for the all-sky shortwave and 5 W m−2/decade for the clear-sky shortwave. This all-sky increase is substantially greater than the 2 W m−2/decade previously reported over much more of the globe as represented by data from the Global Energy Balance Archive spanning 1986–2000 and is more than twice the magnitude of the corresponding 1986–2000 2–3 W m−2/decade increase in downwelling longwave. Our results show that changes in dry aerosols and/or direct aerosol effects alone cannot explain the observed changes in surface shortwave (SW) radiation, but it is likely that changes in cloudiness play a significant role. These SW increases are accompanied by decreasing tendencies in cloudiness, and an increasing tendency in the clear-sky SW diffuse/direct ratio that is often associated with atmospheric turbidity. However, given the many local influences, evidence presented here suggests that the determination of the causes of decadal changes in the downwelling solar radiation at the surface are better studied locally and regionally, rather than on a global or continental scale.

[1] The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF)/albedo algorithm uses multiday, multiband MODIS surface reflectance products from Terra and Aqua to produce a global albedo product at a 500 m resolution (Collection 5). This paper evaluates the ability of the MODIS albedo product to represent albedos at all diurnal solar zenith angles through a comparison with field measurements from the Surface Radiation Budget Network (SURFRAD) and the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Southern Great Plains (ARM/SGP) stations. The results show that, for most of the sites, the overall accuracy of the MODIS albedo is within 0.05 and shows an increasing negative bias and increased RMSE as zenith angle increases beyond 70°–75° as compared to the ground observations. The full inversion of the MODIS BRDF/albedo algorithm has a higher inversion quality than the backup algorithm. Site heterogeneity and spatial-scale mismatch between the MODIS and ground observations are the major factors contributing to the discrepancy between the MODIS albedo and the field measurements.

[1] The Arctic climate is modulated, in part, by the presence of aerosols that affect the horizontal and vertical distribution of radiant energy passing through the atmosphere. Aerosols affect the surface-atmosphere radiation balance directly through interactions with solar and terrestrial radiation and indirectly through interactions with cloud particles. During summer 2004 forest fires destroyed vast areas of boreal forest in Alaska and western Canada, releasing smoke into the atmosphere. Smoke aerosol passing over instrumented field sites near Barrow, Alaska, was monitored to determine its physical and optical properties and its impact on the surface radiation budget. Empirical determinations of the direct aerosol radiative forcing (DARF) by the smoke were used to corroborate simulations made using the Moderate Resolution Transmittance radiative transfer model, MODTRAN™5. DARF is defined as the change in net shortwave irradiance per unit of aerosol optical depth (AOD). DARF, varying with solar angle and surface type, was evaluated at the surface, at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), and within the intervening layers of the atmosphere. The TOA results are compared with fluxes derived from coincident satellite retrievals made using the Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) radiance data. Smoke tends to reduce the net shortwave irradiance at the surface while increasing it within layers in which it resides. Over the Arctic tundra during summer, a layer of smoke having AOD = 0.5 at 500 nm produces a diurnally averaged DARF of about-40 W m -2 at the surface and-20 W m -2 at TOA, while the layer itself tends to warm at a rate of ≈ K d -1 . The tendency of smoke to cool the surface while heating the layer above may lead to increased atmospheric stability and suppress cloud formation. Radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere is especially sensitive to small changes in surface albedo, evidenced in both the model results and satellite retrievals. TOA net shortwave flux decreases when smoke is present over dark surfaces and tends to increase if the underlying surface is bright. For example, at solar noon during midsummer at Barrow, a layer of smoke having AOD(500) = 0.5 will reduce the net shortwave flux at TOA by ≈30 W m -2 over the ocean while at the same time increasing it by 20 W m -2 over an adjacent area of melting sea ice. For smoke aerosol, the sensitivity of DARF to changing surface albedo (assuming a solar zenith angle of 50°) is about +15 W m -2 AOD -1 for every increase in surface albedo of 0.10. Throughout the Arctic summer, surface and TOA cooling and a tendency toward warming in the intervening atmospheric layers are the dominant radiative impacts of boreal smoke over the ocean and tundra areas, but the radiative forcing at TOA is positive over regions covered by ice or snow. Enhanced differential cooling/heating of ocean, ice, and snow due to the presence of smoke in the atmosphere may affect regional circulation patterns by perturbing diabatic processes. Should the frequency and intensity of boreal fires increase in the future because of global warming, the more persistent presence of smoke in the atmosphere may be manifest as a negative feedback at the surface. In addition, there will likely be indirect radiative impacts of the smoke as it influences cloudiness, which in turn further modulates the Arctic radiation budget.

[1] A series of algorithms developed to process spectral solar measurements for aerosol optical depth (AOD) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) national surface radiation budget network (SURFRAD) is summarized, and decadal results are presented. AOD is a measure of the extinction of the Sun's beam due to aerosols. Daily files of AOD for five spectral measurements in the visible and near-infrared have been produced for 1997–2006. Comparisons of SURFRAD daily AOD averages to NASA's Aerosol Robotic Network product at two of the stations were generally good. An AOD climatology for each SURFRAD station is presented as an annual time series of composite monthly means that represents a typical intra-annual AOD variation. Results are similar to previous U.S. climatologies in that the highest AOD magnitude and greatest variability occur in summer, the lowest AOD levels are in winter, and geographically, the highest-magnitude AOD is in the eastern United States. Springtime Asian dust intrusions show up as a secondary maximum at the western stations. A time series of nationwide annual means shows that 500-nm AOD has decreased over the United States by about 0.02 AOD units over the 10-year period. However, this decline is not statistically significant nor geographically consistent within the country. The eastern U.S. stations and westernmost station at Desert Rock, Nevada, show decreasing AOD, whereas the other two western stations show an increase that is attributed to an upsurge in wildfire activity in the last half of the decade.

[1] The AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET) estimates of instantaneous solar broadband fluxes (F) at surface have been validated through comparison with ground-based measurements of broadband fluxes at Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO) and by the Baseline Surface Radiation (BSRN) and the Solar Radiation Networks (SolRad-Net) during the period 1999–2005 and 1999–2006, respectively. The uncertainties in the calculated aerosol radiative forcing (ΔF) and radiative forcing efficiency (ΔFeff) at the bottom of the atmosphere were also assessed. The stations have been selected attempting to cover different aerosols influences and hence radiative properties: urban-industrial, biomass burning, mineral dust, background continental, maritime aerosols and free troposphere. The AERONET solar downward fluxes at surface agree with ground-based measurements in all situations, with a correlation higher than 99% whereas the relation of observed to modeled fluxes ranges from 0.98 to 1.02. Globally an overestimation of 9 ± 12 Wm−2 of solar measurements was found, whereas for MLO (clear atmosphere) the differences decrease noticeably up to 2 ± 10 Wm−2. The highest dispersion between AERONET estimates and measurements was observed in locations dominated by mineral dust and mixed aerosols types. In these locations, the F and ΔF uncertainties have shown a modest increase of the differences for high aerosol load, contrary to ΔFeff which are strongly affected by low aerosol load. Overall the discrepancies clustered within 9 ± 12 Wm−2 for ΔF and 28 ± 30 Wm−2 per unit of aerosol optical depth, τ, at 0.55 μm for ΔFeff, where the latter is given for τ(0.44 μm) ≥ 0.4. The error distributions have not shown any significant tendency with other aerosol radiative properties as well as size and shape particles.

[1] As a fast developing country covering a large territory, China is experiencing rapid environmental changes. High concentrations of aerosols with diverse properties are emitted in the region, providing a unique opportunity for understanding the impact of environmental changes on climate. Until very recently, few observational studies were conducted in the source regions. The East Asian Study of Tropospheric Aerosols: An International Regional Experiment (EAST-AIRE) attempts to characterize the physical, optical and chemical properties of the aerosols and their effects on climate over China. This study presents some preliminary results using continuous high-quality measurements of aerosol, cloud and radiative quantities made at the first EAST-AIRE baseline station at Xianghe, about 70 km east of Beijing over a period of one year (September 2004 to September 2005). It was found that the region is often covered by a thick layer of haze (with a yearly mean aerosol optical depth equal to 0.82 at 500 nm and maximum greater than 4) due primarily to anthropogenic emissions. An abrupt ‘‘cleanup’’ of the haze often took place in a matter of one day or less because of the passage of cold fronts. The mean single scattering albedo is approximately 0.9 but has strong day-to-day variations with maximum monthly averages occurring during the summer. Large aerosol loading and strong absorption lead to a very large aerosol radiative effect at the surface (the annual 24-hour mean values equals 24 W m � 2 ), but a much smaller aerosol radiative effect at the top of the atmosphere (one tenth of the surface value). The boundary atmosphere is thus heated dramatically during the daytime, which may affect atmospheric stability and cloud formation. In comparison, the cloud radiative effect at the surface is only moderately higher (� 41 W m � 2 ) than the aerosol radiative effect at the surface.

[1] Spectral ultraviolet (UV) and visible irradiance has been measured near Barrow, Alaska (71°N, 157°W), between 1991 and 2005 with a SUV-100 spectroradiometer. The instrument is part of the U.S. National Science Foundation's UV Monitoring Network. Here we present results based on the recently produced “version 2” data release, which supersedes published “version 0” data. Cosine error and wavelength-shift corrections applied to the new version increased biologically effective UV dose rates by 0–10%. Corrected clear-sky measurements of different years are typically consistent to within ±3%. Measurements were complemented with radiative transfer model calculations to retrieve total ozone and surface albedo from measured spectra and for the separation of the different factors influencing UV and visible radiation. A climatology of UV and visible radiation was established, focusing on annual cycles, trends, and the effect of clouds. During several episodes in spring of abnormally low total ozone, the daily UV dose at 305 nm exceeded the climatological mean by up to a factor of 2.6. Typical noontime UV Indices during summer vary between 2 and 4; the highest UV Index measured was 5.0 and occurred when surface albedo was unusually high. Radiation levels in the UV-A and visible exhibit a strong spring-autumn asymmetry. Irradiance at 345 nm peaks on approximately 20 May, 1 month before the solstice. This asymmetry is caused by increased cloudiness in autumn and high albedo in spring, when the snow covered surface enhances downwelling UV irradiance by up to 57%. Clouds reduce UV radiation at 345 nm on average by 4% in March and by more than 40% in August. Aerosols reduce UV by typically 5%, but larger reductions were observed during Arctic haze events. Stratospheric aerosols from the Pinatubo eruption in 1991 enhanced spectral irradiance at 305 nm for large solar zenith angles. The year-to-year variations of spectral irradiance at 305 nm and of the UV Index are mostly caused by variations in total ozone and cloudiness. Changes in surface albedo that may occur in the future can have a marked impact on UV levels between May and July. No statistically significant trends in monthly mean noontime irradiance were found.

[1] Twenty-eight years (1977–2004) of surface solar irradiance observations at five remote climate observatories are analyzed for long-term temporal variations and spatial representativeness. Autocorrelated temporal variations are suggested in the annual mean irradiance records at some of the sites and in normalized anomaly records for various combinations of the surface sites. These variations are illustrated by first-, second-, and third-degree polynomials as well as by a sinusoidal fit, all of which are used as data smoothers not necessarily representative of any related physical processes, although some fits yield statistically significant coefficients. In general, there is an indication of a decreasing tendency in the early portion of the records and then an increasing tendency until toward the very end of the record. Variations among field sites are seen, with the one Arctic site showing the most departure from the others, with primarily a downward trend for most of the record. The spatial representativeness of each site's annual mean record is investigated using spatial cross correlation with satellite-derived global estimates of the surface solar irradiance. These cross correlations show significant correlations with relatively large areas both contiguous and noncontiguous with the sites.

[1] The first intensive observation period (IOP) to simultaneously measure diffuse horizontal shortwave irradiance (scattered solar radiation that falls on a horizontal surface) with a wide array of shaded pyranometers suggested that a consensus might be reached that would permit the establishment of a standard with a smaller uncertainty than previously achieved. A second IOP has been held to refine the first IOP measurements using a uniform calibration protocol, offset corrections for all instruments and validation of those corrections, improvements in some of the instruments, and better data acquisition. The venue for both IOPs was the Department of Energy's Atmospheric Radiation Measurement central facility in northern Oklahoma. The 9 days of measurements in October 2003 included a better mixture of clear and overcast conditions than during the first IOP and revealed considerable differences among the instruments' responses for different cloud conditions. Four of the 15 instruments were eliminated as candidates to be included in the standard because of noisy signals, inadequate offset correction, or instability with respect to the majority of the measurements. Eight pyranometers agreed to within ±2% for clear-sky conditions. Three others have a high bias on clear days relative to these eight, but all 11 agree within ±2% on overcast days. The differences and causes of this behavior under clear and cloudy skies are examined.

[1] Column aerosol optical depth (AOD) and surface shortwave irradiance (SSI) measurements relevant to computation of the aerosol surface radiative forcing (ΔF) and forcing efficiency (β) were taken as part of Aerosol Characterization Experiment-Asia (ACE-Asia) at the Gosan surface site in Korea in April 2001. We compare the AOD and SSI derived from three different types of Sun photometers and three sets of radiometers. We also estimate the ΔF and β using two methods and quantify the observational uncertainties of these parameters. A comparison of the AOD at 500 nm shows that the three Sun photometers generally agreed within 0.014 (mean), 0.0142 (bias), and 0.0298 (root mean square) for coincident observations. Over the course of the comparison, the mean differences between the SSI measurements were 1.6, 11.7, and 10.1 Wm−2 for direct, diffuse and global irradiances, respectively. However, for both the AOD and the SSI comparisons, relatively high instantaneous differences between the instruments were apparent on days with heavy dust at the surface. The mean β and associated deviations, which were estimated by the combinations of different instrument-derived AODs and SSIs, for simultaneous observation data at a 60° solar zenith angle are −79.50 ± 3.92 and −82.57 ± 5.70 Wm−2/τ500 for globalshaded (sum of direct and diffuse irradiances) and globalunshaded (measured by the unshaded pyranometer) irradiances, respectively. The uncertainties in β associated with uncertainties in the AOD and SSI (in parentheses) for globalshaded and globalunshaded irradiance are about 8.6% and 3.2% (10.7%), respectively. A 2% difference between the measured global irradiances for a given 9 days was translated into an uncertainty of 19% in ΔF. This difference in ΔF between instruments caused a 14% deviation in β.

[1] The microphysical properties of an optically thin (τ ≤ 0.12) cirrus layer formed by dispersing contrails above Boulder, Colorado, have been examined in a ground-based study. Backscatter and depolarization lidar measurements at 0.532 μm were used to characterize the cloud morphology, while near-infrared (0.9 to 1.7 μm) spectroscopy was used to measure zenith scattered sunlight from the ice particles. The spectra are used to infer the particle effective diameter from published size and shape dependent scattering calculations. The measurements indicate growth in particle size from average effective diameters less than 20 μm in isolated contrails, to more than 40 μm as the contrails coalesced to form a 1–2 km thick cirrus layer. The retrieved size distributions are consistent with published measurements of contrail-cirrus size distributions from in situ observations, and suggest that the lidar/near-infrared spectroscopy combination can provide a useful method for deriving radiatively important information regarding optically thin (τ ≤ 0.1) cirrus under conditions where the single-scattering approximation is valid.

On five occasions spanning the Asian Pacific Regional Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE-Asia) field campaign in spring 2001, the Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer spaceborne instrument took data coincident with high-quality observations by instruments on two or more surface and airborne platforms. The cases capture a range of clean, polluted, and dusty aerosol conditions. With a three-stage optical modeling process, we synthesize the data from over 40 field instruments into layer-by-layer environmental snapshots that summarize what we know about the atmospheric and surface states at key locations during each event. We compare related measurements and discuss the implications of apparent discrepancies, at a level of detail appropriate for satellite retrieval algorithm and aerosol transport model validation. Aerosols within a few kilometers of the surface were composed primarily of pollution and Asian dust mixtures, as expected. Medium- and coarse-mode particle size distributions varied little among the events studied; however, column aerosol optical depth changed by more than a factor of 4, and the near-surface proportion of dust ranged between 25% and 50%. The amount of absorbing material in the submicron fraction was highest when near-surface winds crossed Beijing and the Korean Peninsula and was considerably lower for all other cases. Having simultaneous single-scattering albedo measurements at more than one wavelength would significantly reduce the remaining optical model uncertainties. The consistency of component particle microphysical properties among the five events, even in this relatively complex aerosol environment, suggests that global, satellite-derived maps of aerosol optical depth and aerosol mixture (air-mass-type) extent, combined with targeted in situ component microphysical property measurements, can provide a detailed global picture of aerosol behavior.

Time series of cloud solar transmission and cloud occurrence frequency are developed for the past 27 years at four globally remote and climatically diverse surface locations. A new methodology is developed that objectively segregates times of cloud-free conditions from those times when clouds are detected in high-time-resolution total solar irradiance observations that are obtained from pyranometers. The methodology for cloud detection depends on the magnitude and short-term variability of observed departures from clear-sky conditions. Expected clear-sky irradiances are based on interpolated clear-sky observations. Results of the new cloud detection methodology are compared to four independent cloud detection methods. An effective cloud transmission is determined as the ratio of observed irradiance in the presence of clouds to that expected in the absence of clouds. Selective forward scattering by clouds toward the observation site results in computed effective transmissions frequently being >1.0. It is shown that conditional temporal averaging of effective cloud transmission over periods of three days or more virtually eliminates the unrealistic cloud transmissions exceeding 1.0. Such temporal averaging of the surface measurements is advantageous for comparing against other area-wide cloud transmission estimates, such as those determined from satellite or by numerical climate models. The cloud occurrence frequency and themore » effective solar transmission for long-term observational records are summarized into monthly and annual averages, and their long-term variability is investigated. Temporal variations in frequency distributions of transmission are used to determine which clouds are responsible for changes in mean cloudiness. A statistically significant upward trend in cloud occurrence frequency, from 76% to 82% between 1976 and 2001, is detected at Barrow, Alaska, where clouds having solar transmission near 0.2 exhibit the largest increase. At the South Pole, decadal time scale oscillations in both cloud characteristics are detected, but no particular cloud category is identified as the source of that oscillation.« less

[1] We carried out a spectroscopic field experiment designed to measure water vapor continuum absorption in the visible and near-infrared spectral regions. Atmospheric spectra at ∼1 nm resolution were recorded using direct sunlight at high solar zenith angles during sunrise. Simultaneously radiosonde soundings and a network of geodetic Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers were deployed to constrain the water vapor amount along the absorption path. The solar spectra were analyzed using the Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy technique, while the GPS and radiosonde observations were used as input data to a line-by-line radiative transfer model to compute theoretical differential absorption spectra. The difference between the measurements and the simulated spectra provides information regarding the additional absorption owing to the H2O continuum. The data are compared to predictions of the widely used Clough-Kneizys-Davies continuum model as well as with theoretically derived spectra of water dimer. The results show that continuum absorption contributes significantly to solar absorption even in highly saturated H2O bands. The comparisons provide the needed observations to improve future continuum parameterizations.

[1] The first intensive observation period (IOP) dedicated exclusively to the measurement of diffuse horizontal shortwave irradiance was held in the Fall 2001 at the central facility of the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Southern Great Plains (SGP) site with the cooperation of the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) community. The purpose of the study was to compare diffuse irradiance measurements among most commercial pyranometers and a few prototypes calibrated independently using current practices. The hope was to achieve a consensus for this measurement with the goal of improving the uncertainty of shortwave diffuse irradiance measurements. All diffuse broadband measurements were made using the same type of two-axis tracker with the direct beam blocked by shading balls. Tracking was excellent during the IOP with no lost data associated with tracker problems. Fourteen simultaneous measurements were obtained over a two-week period under mostly clear skies with low to moderate aerosol loading. Totally overcast data were obtained during the morning of one day. Five of the measurements are reproducible to about 2 W/m2 at the 95% confidence level. Three more agree with the mean of these five to about 4 W/m2 at the 95% confidence level after correction for thermal offsets.

[1] The impact of radiative transfer processes on MM5 air-quality forecasts during the Nashville Southern Oxidants Experiments is addressed. We find that an incorrect specification of aerosol scattering, aerosol absorption, and ozone absorption in the model can lead to positive errors in the instantaneous total solar irradiance at the surface of 100 W m−2 using the Dudhia solar parameterization. This increased solar irradiance upsets the surface energy balance in the model causing errors in the surface heat fluxes and mixing depth estimation. We also show that a systematic 80 W m−2 increase in the forecast downwelling long-wave radiation can inhibit the formation of ground-based nocturnal inversions in the model when the Dudhia long-wave radiation routine is used. Thus we find that accurate specification of radiative processes, including some driven by local pollution, can be important for mesoscale meteorological forecasting. A method for including ozone absorption in MM5 is introduced, and optimum choices for running the model in aerosol rich geographic regions are discussed.

[1] Predictions of global circulation models (GCMs) that account for increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols in the atmosphere show that warming in the Arctic will be amplified in response to the melting of sea ice and snow cover. There is now conclusive evidence that much of the Arctic has warmed in recent decades. Northern Alaska is one region where significant warming has occurred, especially during winter and spring. We investigate how the changing climate of northern Alaska has influenced the annual cycle of snow cover there and in turn, how changes in snow cover perturb the region's surface radiation budget and temperature regime. The focus is on Barrow, Alaska, for which comprehensive data sets exist. A review of earlier studies that documented a trend toward an earlier disappearance of snow in spring is given. Detection and monitoring activities at Barrow are described, and records of snow disappearance from other sites in the Alaskan Arctic are compared. Correlated variations and trends in the date of final snowmelt (melt date) are found by examining several independent time series. Since the mid-1960s the melt date in northern Alaska has advanced by ∼;8 days. The advance appears to be a consequence of decreased snowfall in winter, followed by warmer spring conditions. These changes in snowfall and temperature are attributed to variations in regional circulation patterns. In recent decades, there has been a higher frequency of northerly airflow during winter that tends to diminish snowfall over northern Alaska. During spring, however, intrusions of warm moist air from the North Pacific have become more common, and these tend to accelerate the ablation of snow on the North Slope of Alaska. One result of an earlier melt date is an increase in the net surface radiation budget. At Barrow, net radiative forcing can exceed 150 W m−2 on a daily basis immediately following the last day of snowmelt, and as a result of an 8-day advance in this event, we estimate an increase of ∼2 W m−2 on an annual basis. Our results are in general agreement with earlier analyses suggesting that reductions in snow cover over a large portion of the Arctic on an annual basis have contributed to a warming of the Northern Hemisphere (NH). In addition, the terrestrial ecosystems of the region are very sensitive to snow cover variations. There is growing concern that these perturbations are anthropogenically forced and adapting to these environmental changes will have significant social and economic consequences. While observed decreases in NH snow cover are in broad agreement with GCM simulations, our analyses suggest that internal (or natural) shifts in circulation patterns underlie the observed variations. Continued monitoring and further study is needed to determine whether the earlier disappearance of snow cover in spring in northern Alaska is an indicator of greenhouse-forced global warming or is a manifestation of a more natural, long-term cycle of climate change.

Spectral aerosol optical depth, τa, observed at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, for the past 11 years is analyzed for background variations and the effects of two major volcanic eruptions: El Chichon in 1982 and Mount Pinatubo in 1991. A previously known annual variation and near-background levels are present in the record. The data are of high accuracy, being primarily obtained from an automatic precision sunphotometer and reduced using the Langley-plot slope method. The τa values over Mauna Loa were greater immediately after the eruption of El Chichon than after Mount Pinatubo due to more direct transport from El Chichon. However, Pinatubo had a greater temporally integrated impact because of greater erupted sulfur mass. A mean solar irradiance decrease of 6.5 (±2.5) W m−2 per 0.1 τa (500 nm) averaged over 24 hours is observed for both volcanic eruptions. Slight differences are suggested between the eruptions, but the differences are not statistically significant. Small differences between the two eruptions in the aerosol size distributions derived from τa observations are also indicated and are consistent with the suggested difference in total solar irradiance aerosol sensitivity. The near-background τa values compare well with in situ surface-based aerosol light-scattering measurements extrapolated through the upper troposphere.

The Ames airborne tracking sunphotometer was operated at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO) in 1991 and 1992 along with the NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (CMDL) automated tracking sunphotometer and lidar. June 1991 measurements provided calibrations, optical-depth spectra, and intercomparisons under relatively clean conditions; later measurements provided spectra and comparisons for the Pinatubo cloud plus calibration checks. June 1991 results are similar to previous MLO springtime measurements, with midvisible particle optical depth tau(sub p)(lambda = 0.526 microns) at the near-background level of 0.012 +/- 0.006 and no significant wavelength dependence in the measured range (lambda = 0.38 to 1.06 microns). The arrival of the Pinatubo cloud in July 1991 increased midvisible particle optical depth by more than an order of magnitude and changed the spectral shape of tau(sub p)(lambda) to an approximate power law with an exponent of about -1.4. By early September 1991, the spectrum was broadly peaked near 0.5 microns, and by July 1992, it was peaked near 0.8 microns. Our optical-depth spectra include corrections for diffuse light which increase postvolcanic midvisible tau(sub p) values by 1 to 3% (i.e., 0.0015 to 0.0023). NOAA- and Ames Research Center (ARC)-measured spectra are in good agreement. Columnar size distributions inverted from the spectra show that the initial (July 1991) post-Pinatubo cloud was relatively rich in small particles (r less than 0.25 microns), which were progressively depleted in the August-September 1991 and July 1992 periods. Conversely, both of the later periods had more of the optically efficient medium-sized particles (0.25 less than r less than 1 micron) than did the fresh July 1991 cloud. These changes are consistent with particle growth by condensation and coagulation. The effective, or area-weighted, radius increased from 0.22 +/- 0.06 micron in July 1991 to 0.56 +/- 0.12 micron in August-September 1991 and to 0.86 +/- 0.29 micron in July 1992. Corresponding column mass values were 4.8 +/- 0.7, 9.1 +/- 2.7, and 5.5 +/- 2 micro g/sq cm, and corresponding column surface areas were 4.4 +/- 0.5, 2.9 +/- 0.2, and 1.1 +/- 0.1 sq micron/sq cm,. Photometer-inferred column backscatter values agree with those measured by the CMDL lidar on nearby nights. Combining lidar-measured backscatter profiles with photometer-derived backscatter-to-area ratios gives peak particle areas that could cause rapid heterogeneous loss of ozone, given sufficiently low particle acidity and suitable solar zenith angles (achieved at mid- to high latitudes). Top-of-troposphere radiative forcings for the September 1991 and July 1992 optical depths and size distributions over MLO are about -5 and -3 W 1/sq m, respectively (hence comparable in magnitude but opposite in sign to the radiative forcing caused by the increase in manmade greenhouse gases since the industrial revolution). Heating rates in Pinatubo layer over MLO are 0.55 +/- 0.13 and 0.41 +/- 0.14 K/d for September 1991 and July 1992, respectively.

Measurements of the 2π-sr (hemispheric) diffuse-sky, direct, and total (diffuse and direct) transmitted solar flux were made at Boulder, Colorado, during the passage of the Mount St. Helens dust cloud on May 19 and June 3, 1980. The measurements were both narrow-band and broadband integrated over the solar spectrum. Verification of the presence of the cloud and its vertical profile was obtained by lidar. Analysis of the flux measurements by a perturbation technique yielded volcanic cloud optical properties useful for studies of climate variation. The ratio of backscatter to total scatter, imaginary term of the complex refractive index, albedo of single scatter, and optical depth are determined from the measurements. Estimates of solar radiation absorption and backward and forward scattering by the cloud are given. Certain radiative characteristics of the Agung volcanic cloud and the Mount St. Helens volcanic cloud are compared.

[1] Measurement and modeling of downward longwave irradiance are a special challenge in arctic winter due to its low water vapor content and the extreme meteorological conditions. There are questions about the representativeness of the instrument calibration, the consistency and unfcertainty of measurements and models in these environments. The Second International Pyrgeometer and Absolute Sky-scanning Radiometer Comparison (IPASRC-II), which was conducted at Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) program's North Slope of Alaska (NSA) site in Barrow provided a unique opportunity to compare high accuracy downward longwave irradiance measurements and radiative transfer model computations during arctic winter. Participants from 11 international institutions deployed 14 pyrgeometers, which were field-calibrated against the Absolute Sky-scanning Radiometer (ASR). Continuous measurements over a 10-day period in early March 2001 with frequent clear-sky conditions yielded downward longwave irradiances between 120 and 240 W m−2. The small average difference between ASR irradiances, pyrgeometer measurements, MODTRAN and LBLRTM radiative transfer computations indicates that the absolute uncertainty of measured downward longwave irradiance under arctic winter conditions is within ±2 W m−2.

We present some results of our initial optical observations of the El Chichon volcanic cloud. These observations were made at the Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, and consist of lidar profiles, optical thickness, spectral variation in optical thickness and changes in global and direct solar broadband fluxes. Particle size distribution and cloud mass information contained in the optical thickness observations are discussed. It is clear that the atmospheric radiative effects of the El Chichon cloud far exceed the effects of all other volcanic clouds observed at Mauna Loa since observations were begun in 1958.