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We used General Land Office survey data (1860–1890) and interpreted aerial photography from the 1930s, 1970s, and 1990s to quantify forest disturbance frequency and spatial patterns for four time periods in the Mixed Forest Province of Minnesota. The study region included eight subsections within the Mixed Forest Province of Minnesota’s Ecological Classification System. Presettlement disturbance and spatial pattern estimates varied across the eight subsections indicating a strong relationship to soil and landform characteristics. Land surveyors primarily recorded higher severity disturbances that resulted in significant tree mortality. The 1900–1940 era was characterized by a short-term increase in fire frequency that was relatively uniform across the study region, in contrast to the variability of the presettlement (1860–1890) landscape. In the postsettlement period (1940–1995), timber harvest replaced fire as the dominant disturbance factor. Similar management practices among subsections created similar harvest rates throughout the study region. These management practices imposed a more homogeneous pattern dominated by small (10–25 ha) patches. Management practices now have a greater influence than natural processes in the generation of landscape pattern in the Mixed Forest Province of Minnesota. Information on presettlement forest conditions and subsequent changes can be used by land managers to restore spatial pattern variability in managed forest landscapes.

We investigated impacts of harvesting on soil disturbance and vegetation in the aspen cover type of northern Minnesota, United States. The soil disturbance (resistance to penetration) and understory vegetation were characterized for 19 sites on five 60-m 2 plots placed along a disturbance gradient: landings (high harvesting traffic), skid trails (inter- mediate harvesting traffic), and areas off skid trails (low to no harvesting traffic). Penetration levels were quite variable, but they still indicated that within-site responses to disturbance patterns created by clear-cut harvesting were not uniform. In general, soil disturbance and understory species composition within landings were similar to those with skid trails. The soil disturbance and vegetation composition of these two levels differed from those of the low-disturbance plots (off skid trails), indicating that removing trees alone did not affect vegetation composition as much as creating an es- tablished skid trail, regardless of harvest timing. However, sites with more variable species composition (win- ter-harvested sites) and lower disturbance levels were less altered than sites with likely lower initial diversity (summer-harvested sites). The results suggest that it is important for recovery of understory plant communities to not only limit the amount and level of disturbances but also consider the spatial layout of harvesting, thus maintaining a spatially connected network of remnant forest patches large enough to contain interior forest species. Resume : Les auteurs etudie l'impact des activites de recolte sur la perturbation du sol et la vegetation dans les forets de peuplier faux-tremble du nord du Minnesota aux Etats-Unis. La perturbation du sol (resistance a la penetration) et la vegetation de sous-bois ont ete caracterisees pour 19 sites dans cinq places-echantillons de 60 m 2 etablies de long d'un

To improve source–sink relationship based carbon-allocation models, the basic proportional model was extended to account for a well-known effect of individual source to sink distances: among different sinks of similar characteristics, the more distant from the source, the lower the allocation coefficient. This was achieved through multiplication of the sink strength value by a coefficient that is proportional to a decreasing, simple function of distance, f; the power form was chosen for both simplicity and theoretical reasons. The resulting model was parameterized and evaluated on the empirical allocation matrix of the ECOPHYS model, after grouping together several individual, small sinks of similar nature and close location to remove any phyllotaxy-related bias. Both goodness of fit and predictive value were significantly improved compared with the basic proportional model (f = constant). The f-extended model yielded even better results if segments of different nature or age on the source to sink pathway were assigned different weights in the expression of distance, whereas the default expression of f, with an exponent of –1 and no additive constant, was optimal with no further parameter required. Thus, only 7 parameters (3 for pathway segment weights and 4 for sink strength values) were sufficient to retrieve the original 68 independent experimental allocation coefficients with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Pathway segment weights likely reflect both intrinsic transport pathway properties and situation within the plant architecture; this is discussed in relation to the possibilities of generalization and practical use of the model.

The interaction between physical environment and land ownership in creating spatial heterogeneity was studied in largely forested landscapes of northern Wisconsin, USA. A stratified random approach was used in which 2500-ha plots representing two ownerships (National Forest and private non-industrial) were located within two regional ecosystems (extremely well-drained outwash sands and moderately well-drained moraines). Sixteen plots were established, four within each combination of ownership and ecosystem, and the land cover on the plots was classified from aerial photographs using a modified form of the Anderson (U.S. Geological Survey) land use and land cover classification system. Upland deciduous forests dominated by northern hardwoods were common on the moraines for both ownerships. On the outwash, the National Forest was dominated by pine plantations, upland deciduous forests, and upland regenerating forests (as defined by

The relative influence of geologic versus anthropogenic attributes of catchments on stream ecosystems was examined in 45 catchments of a river basin in central Michigan. Each catchment was characterized by land use, surficial geology, elevation, and hydrography, and summaries of these data were related to physical habitat characteristics that had the greatest influence on macroinvertebrate assemblages. Partial redundancy analysis revealed that geologic and land-use variables had similar magnitudes of influence on stream habitats. Of the geologic variables, catchment area, proportion of lacustrine clays, and glacial outwash materials had the strongest influence on physical habitat, particularly on channel dimensions. Row-crop agriculture and the presence of wetlands were the most important land-use variables, particularly influencing amounts of woody debris. Stream buffers (100 m) were more important than whole catchment data for predicting sediment-related habitat variables; however, channel morphology was more strongly related to whole catchments. Results suggest that catchment-wide geology and land-use characteristics may be more important than stream buffers for maintaining or restoring stream ecosystems. These techniques can be used to develop biologic signatures of catchment condition that discriminate causal factors influencing the biodiversity and health of stream ecosystems. Resume : Nous avons examine les influences respectives sur les ecosystemes des cours d'eau des attributs geologiques des bassins-versants en regard de leurs attributs anthropiques dans 45 aires d'alimentation d'un bassin fluvial du centre du Michigan (Etats-Unis). Nous avons caracterise chaque aire d'alimentation par l'utilisation du sol, la geologie de subsurface, l'elevation et l'hydrographie et nous avons rattache les sommaires des donnees ainsi obtenues aux caracteristiques de l'habitat physique qui exercaient la plus forte influence sur les communautes de macro-invertebres. L'analyse par redondance partielle a revele que les variables geologiques et les variables d'utilisation du sol exercaient sur les habitats une influence du meme ordre de grandeur. Pour ce qui est des variables geologiques, ce sont l'aire du bassin-versant ainsi que la proportion d'argiles lacustres et de materiaux stratifies fluvio-glaciaires qui ont agi le plus sur l'habitat physique, particulierement sur les dimensions du chenal. Les cultures en lignes et la presence de terres humides consituaient les plus importantes variables en matiere d'utilisation du sol, variables qui ont agi tout particulierement sur la quantite de debris ligneux. Les zones tampons (100 m) ont joue un plus grand role que les donnees sur les bassins-versants tout entiers dans la prevision des variables d'habitat relatives aux sediments; par contre, la morphologie du chenal se rattachait plus fortement aux bassins-versants tout entiers. Les resultats permettent de penser que la geologie du bassin-versant et les caracteristiques d'utilisation du sol font peut-etre plus que les zones tampons pour maintenir ou retablir les ecosystemes des cours d'eau. On peut recourir a ces techniques pour elaborer, au sujet de l'etat des bassins-versants, des signatures biologiques qui distinguent les facteurs causaux de la biodiversite et de la sante des ecosystemes des cours d'eau. (Traduit par la Redaction)

A simulation model is described that grows stands of aspen of given age, site quality, and stocking from establishment to breakup. Specifying mean July air temperature allows custom application to most aspen growing regions in North America and Scandinavia. The program predicts total yields in number of trees, basal area, and biomass; and merchantable yields in cubic feet and cords for user-specified utilization standards, and in board feet, Scribner. North. J. Appl. For. 13(4):164-170.

A strategy for process modelling of short-rotation Salix coppice plantations is presented. To integrate effectively both large- and small-scale processes, this model must simulate critical processes at scales ranging from the individual leaf to the plantation. This multiscale modelling strategy extrapolates the detail of mechanistic physiological models to the patch and plantation scales. To accomplish this scaling, regional climatic and soil databases are used to generate model inputs; i.e. site and climatic information is passed from the regional scale to drive models operating at the stand or tree level. Key input variables at the individual tree level include genetically determined factors such as leaf morphology and branch architecture, as well as phenological and physiological parameters. Outputs such as carbon fixation, leaf area index, biomass by component, and yields per hectare are then passed back up to address regional questions. This strategy requires a parallel programme of modelling and experimentation. While this strategy focuses on Salix , the approach should also be applicable to species with similar life history attributes, such as Betula and Populus .

In order to effectively deploy short-rotation woody crop plantations for energy and fiber production at regional scales, biologically sound-field-level models of plant growth are required. Individual tree growth process models have proven effective at predicting growth based on environmental driving variables, but in the past these models have been too complex to use at the plantation scale. In this paper we describe an object-oriented strategy for scaling ECOPHYS, an individual tree growth process model for hybrid poplar, to a plantation. Included in this strategy are methods of scaling from an individual shoot to a tree, from individual trees to a patch, and from patches to a plantation. In describing interactions among trees, both above- and below-ground processes are considered. Finally, we describe methods for integrating the plantation level ECOPHYS with EPIC, a field scale model of soil productivity and erosion used in regional assessment.

Ground-flora and overstory composition and abundance patterns in 76 upland forest stands were related to the glacial geomorphology of a five-county area in northwestern lower Michigan. Nine classes of landforms were identified based on parent material and surface configuration. Chi-squared analyses of standardized residuals indicated that spatial distribution patterns of the ground flora were significantly associated with glacial landform. Detrended correspondence analyses showed that specific overstory–ground flora assemblages recur in characteristic landscape positions. The Interlobate Moraine, a predominant landform in the northeastern portion of the study area, was characterized by a northern hardwood canopy, primarily sugar maple (Acersaccharum Marsh.), basswood (Tiliaamericana L.), and red oak (Quercusrubra L.), with herbaceous annuals, perennials, and ephemerals forming the ground flora. Other morainal and glaciofluvial landforms supported oak (Quercus spp.) overstories with a woody ericaceous or graminoid ground flora. Ground-flora and overstory composition were highly correlated, indicating that they respond similarly to variation in environmental and historical factors. Moisture availability, as evidenced by soil texture and the presence of subsurface textural discontinuities, appeared to be a predominant factor influencing species distribution patterns. Since moisture availability and related nutrient dynamics are functions of depositional and postglacial history, regional-scale geomorphic patterns constrain forest composition in a probabilistic manner.

Multivariate classification and ordination methods were used to develop ecological species groups for upland forest ecosystems of northwestern Lower Michigan. Species groups were based on similarities in ground-flora composition and abundance patterns among 76 sample stands. Nine ecological species groups were identified using 48 herbaceous, woody and moss species. The divisive classification produced six classes of stands: two dominated by northern hardwoods and four dominated by oaks. The distribution patterns typified by Deschampsia flexuosa, Vaccinium angustifolium, Viburnum acerifolium, and Desmodium spp. were important in discriminating among oak stands, whereas patterns typical of Osmorhiza claytonii and Maianthemum canadense distinguished northern hardwood stands. The species groups exhibited a wide range of ecological amplitudes, from highly specific associations with individual ecosystems to broad distributions across a range of site conditions. Within the geographic limits imposed by macroclimate and regional physiography, ecological species groups act to integrate site attributes and can simplify the process of mapping ecological land units.

Reports that both forest floor removal and soil compaction significantly reduced biomass and height of 2-year-old aspen suckers in plots in northern Minnesota.

During the week of 24 October, 1994, an international group of scientists met in Uppsala, Sweden, to discuss the problems of understanding and modelling the growth of short rotation forests for energy purposes. Three working groups were formed to study specific aspects of the problem: ecophysiology, competition and modelling strategies. This special issue of Biomass and Bioenergy reports the findings of those groups and presents a series of papers related to the ecophysiology and process modelling of Salix .

Potential nitrogen mineralization and nitrification were studied in three upland forest ecosystems to develop an understanding of nitrogen turnover on a landscape basis. The northern Michigan forests studied were an oak ecosystem primarily associated with glacial outwash features and two sugar maple ecosystems that occurred on morainal landforms but differed in the diversity and abundance of ground flora species. Four randomly chosen stands separated by at least 6 km were sampled within each of the three ecosystems. Potential net nitrogen mineralization and nitrification were determined by an aerobic laboratory incubation. Litter was collected from all ecosystems during autumn. Litter production, nitrogen returned to the forest floor, and net mineralization differed by a factor of two between the oak and sugar maple ecosystems. The species-rich sugar maple ecosystems exhibited a fourfold increase in potential nitrification compared with the species-poor sugar maple ecosystem. Nitrification was virtually absent in the oak ecosystem. The distribution of ecosystems could be used to predict differences in potential mineralization and nitrification. Areas susceptible to nitrate loss following intensive forest management practices may be related to the occurrence of plant associations. In this upland landscape, high nitrification potentials appear to be confined to species-rich sugar maple forests.

Variation in overstory biomass and mean annual biomass increment (MABI) of upland forest stands was studied at two spatial scales: glacial landforms (1: 250 000–1: 000 000) and ecological land units (1: 10 000–1: 80 000). Ecological land units were defined based on combinations of ground-flora vegetation, soil, and physiography. Biomass estimates were based on allometric regression equations developed in the Lake States area. Analyses of covariance were used to study the patterns of total biomass and biomass increment among glacial landforms and among ecological land units; stand age was used as the covariate. Overstory biomass ranged from 105 t/ha (MABI = 1.5 t ha−1 year−1) on glacial outwash landforms to 208 t/ha (MABI = 3.2 t ha−1 year−1) on morainal landforms; 37% of the total variation in biomass was accounted for by landform. Analysis at the ecological land unit scale accounted for a higher proportion of variation, approximately 60% of the total. Overstory biomass among ecological land units ranged from 85 t/ha (MABI = 1.3 t ha−1 year−1) for oak-dominated forests occurring on xeric sandy outwash sediments to almost 250 t/ha (MABI = 3.6 t ha−1 year−1) for sugar maple–red oak forests occurring in mesic morainal positions. Variation in biomass appeared to be strongly related to differences in species composition and variation in soil moisture availability, as evidenced by differences in soil texture and the presence or absence of deep-lying textural bands. Since ground-flora composition often reflects variation in soil properties, we examined the relationship between ground-flora composition and biomass increment. Detrended correspondence analysis was used to ordinate stands along a floristic gradient. Regression of stand ordination scores against MABI was significant (r2 = 0.65), indicating a relatively strong association between ground-flora composition and productivity. One advantage of understanding spatial variation in site productivity is that ecological land units can be readily mapped, whereas traditional estimates of site potential, such as site index, are point specific.

Potential net nitrogen (N) mineralization, potential net nitrification, and overstory (boles and branches) biomass were measured in nine forest ecosystems commonly found within the well-drained uplands of northern Lower Michigan. The ecosystem types ranged from oak-dominated forests on coarse-textured outwash sands to mesic northern hardwood forests on sandy glacial till. Overstory biomass was calculated using species-specific allometric equations developed for Lake States hardwood species. Potential net N mineralization and potential net nitrification were measured by a 30-day aerobic laboratory soil incubation. Analyses of (co)variance were used to determine differences in potential N mineralization, net nitrification, overstory biomass, and biomass increment among the nine ecosystem types. Linear and nonlinear regression analyses were used to predict overstory biomass and biomass increment using potential net N mineralization as the independent variable. Overstory biomass ranged from 92 t•ha−1 in a xeric oak ecosystem to 243 t•ha−1 in a northern hardwood ecosystem; annual biomass production ranged from 1.3 to 3.5 t•ha−1 year−1, respectively. Potential net N mineralization was lowest in the xeric oak ecosystem (52.0 μg N•g−1) and greatest in the mesic northern hardwood ecosystem (127.8 μg N•g−1). Potential net nitrification was 45.5 μg NO3−-N•g−1 in the northern hardwood ecosystem; 10 to 230 times greater than in other ecosystems. A saturating exponential model (y = a(1–e−kx) + c) produced the smallest residual mean squares in predicting overstory biomass (R2 = 0.822) and annual biomass increment (R2 = 0.847) from potential net N mineralization. Maximum overstory biomass and biomass increment predicted from this equation were 247 t•ha−1 and 3.7 t•ha−1, respectively. In addition, laboratory net N mineralization potentials were highly correlated with annual rates of N mineralization determined by insitu incubation (r2 = 0.849). Overstory biomass and woody biomass increment were poorly correlated with potential net nitrification. The exponential function used to predict biomass increment from N mineralization suggests that the productivity of some northern hardwood forests in northern Lower Michigan is not limited by N availability.