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Political violence has long been a focus of psychoanalytic writing. Jessica Benjamin's concepts of the complementarity, or twoness, and that of thirdness can serve as a point of departure allowing us to challenge the dichotomy between positions of revenge and forgiveness (on the victim's part) and positions of evil and remorse (on the perpetrator's), and to suggest a spectrum of encounters between victims and perpetrators that includes four types of interaction: (1) between the position of extreme evil on the perpetrator's part, and the position of revenge on the victim's; (2) between the perpetrator's position of banal evil , and the victim's position of false pardon; (3) between the perpetrator's position of guilt and atonement , and the victim's position of full pardon; (4) between the position of remorse on the perpetrator's part, and the position of forgiveness on the victim's. A thorough analysis of various testimonies illustrates how these four positions manifest, with varying degrees of dominance, in every encounter (whether concrete or imagined) between victim and perpetrator.

Background: Cognitive control is thought to be necessary for forgiveness processes., Materials and Methods: To examine this correlation, highly impulsive participants, who often fail to inhibit feelings of revenge, received activating theta burst stimulation (TBS) of a classical cognitive control region of the brain, the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC). For testing forgiveness ability participants received verum TBS versus sham TBS in a randomized, double-blinded, within-subjects design. In both sessions, they first learned that there are fair and unfair opponents in an ultimatum game, and subsequently played a dictator game with reversed roles with the option to revenge or forgive the opponents from the previous game., Results: Contrary to our hypothesis, activating TBS did not increase forgiving behavior toward unfair opponents. However, it increased the generosity toward previously fair opponents., Conclusion: As an explanation it is discussed that the TBS can only affect "cold" emotions such as greed, but not the "hot" emotions such as anger., (© 2021 The Authors. Brain and Behavior published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

When people are transgressed against, they are usually motivated to restore personal power that was threatened by the transgression. We argue and test the new idea that while revenge and forgiveness responses are typically seen as opposites, both may be empowering, depending on the offender's intent to harm. Across two studies, one experimental (N = 381) and one employing an autobiographical recall paradigm (N = 251), we tested a moderated mediation model. Notably, we found that revenge is empowering at high levels of intent and forgiveness is empowering regardless of intent. Importantly, we also demonstrate that empowerment provides an explanation for the process by which getting revenge and forgiving are each associated with improved affective outcomes for victims., (© 2019 The British Psychological Society.)

This study examined the relations among women's experiences of abuse, forgiveness, revenge, psychological health, and physiological stress reactivity. Both dispositional (Study 1; N  = 103) and state (Study 2; N  = 258) forgiveness and vengeance were associated with psychological symptoms. However, the relation between revenge and greater depression was magnified among psychologically abused women, whereas-unexpectedly-the positive link between forgiveness and psychological health was strengthened among physically abused women. Moreover, while revenge coincided with increased cortisol reactivity following any relationship conflict, this was only evident for forgiveness following physical abuse. The complex interactions among these variables are discussed within a stress and coping framework.

In order to act in a socially acceptable way, the ability to forgive is indispensable. It has been suggested that forgiveness relies on cognitive control, more specifically inhibition. In this study, we combined an ultimatum game (UG) and a dictator game (DG) with inhibitory, continuous theta-burst stimulation (cTBS; verum vs. placebo, within-subjects design) of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to investigate the effect of reduced cognitive control on forgiveness. To this end, participants played an UG against fair and unfair opponents, where they had to accept or reject (fair and unfair) monetary offers, and then received a cTBS prior to playing a DG against the same opponents with reversed roles. The participants now had the possibility to forgive the unfair opponents (allocation of a fair amount of money) or to take revenge whereby the cTBS effects were assessed with functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Following verum cTBS, participants allocated significantly less money to their unfair opponents than in the placebo cTBS condition. Also, reaction times (RTs) differed significantly between verum and placebo cTBS for unfair opponents (higher RTs following verum stimulation) but not for fair opponents. These results strongly indicate that cognitive control is a fundamental requirement for overcoming unwanted emotional responses., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The purpose of the current investigation was to examine forgiveness and intimate partner violence (IPV) among college women. Undergraduate women (N = 502) participated in an online study in which overall experiences of IPV, as well as experiences of psychological and physical IPV, were investigated with respect to transgression-specific and dispositional forgiveness. Simultaneous multivariate regressions revealed that (a) the experience of IPV was associated with higher levels of avoidance and revenge, and lower levels of benevolence, forgiveness of self, forgiveness of others, and forgiveness of uncontrollable situations; (b) types of IPV demonstrated differing impacts on forgiveness; and (c) the mere experience of IPV is more salient than its frequency., (© The Author(s) 2014.)

Although mistreatment in the workplace has been widely acknowledged, the impact of coworker undermining has not been adequately explored in the literature. Using insights from the job demands–resources model, we suggest that coworker undermining is a job demand that is associated with negative affect and somatic complaints. In mitigation of this, we propose two personal resources (i.e. forgiveness and revenge cognitions) as buffers of the positive relationship between coworker undermining and somatic complaints via negative affect. We explore these relationships in a time‐lagged study involving 229 participants who responded to three surveys over a month‐long period. Our findings show that coworker undermining is related to high levels of negative affect in the following week, and that this spills over to somatic complaints. However, this is only true for victims of undermining who do not forgive their colleagues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Is there more powerful revenge narrative in contemporary popular culture than that of all-time über-nerd, Carrie White? For Carrie is a figure of abjection nonpareil, one who is, routinely, subjected to ongoing and intensifying humiliations. Given this treatment, it should come as no surprise when, finally, the tormented Carrie turns the tables, quite spectacularly, on her tormenters – and everyone else who gets in her way. A catastrophic state of affairs that Carrie so clearly 'enjoys', embodying what might be called revenge's jouissance. Utilising a perspective that is broadly psychoanalytic, this article will take up Carrie's jouissance of revenge, situating it in terms of three registers: phallic jouissance, juris-jouissance and feminine jouissance. All, with this end in sight: nothing less than the re-inscription of feminist connection and, with it, the possibility of forgiveness – instantiated in Carrie as victimised outlier and victimising jouisseuse – at the very centre of the Law's psychic subjectivity and social bond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. The phenomenon of revenge has been widely studied in psychology since the beginning of the 20th century. Acts of revenge are considered in psychoanalysis, social, family, criminal, legal and other areas of psychology. Nowadays behaviour based on the motive of revenge is found in virtual environment. There is an ambivalent attitude towards revenge. On the one hand, a person who does not get revenge seems weak. On the other hand, seeking for revenge can be perceived as an unconstructive way of behaving. Despite the prevalence of revenge, there is no generally accepted opinion in psychological science regarding the definition of revenge. Objectives. The aim of this work is to analyze various ideas about revenge and to highlight the components of vengeful behaviour, based on which the form of reciprocal aggression can be classified as revenge. The problem of distinguishing between the concepts of “revenge”, “retribution”, “resentment” and “punishment” is considered. Results. Revenge has a significant difference from other forms of aggressive behaviour. Revenge is always a reaction to previous aggression. The motivational component includes two aspects: the desire to take revenge (revenge seeking) and the desire to maintain a comfortable level of self-esteem. Society has a dual function in relation to revenge: as an initial motive influencing the choice of response to resentment, and as a deterrent factor. The willingness to forgive is determined by moral development, a number of personal characteristics and changes in the motivational sphere. Conclusions. In psychological science, the phenomenon of revenge is subjected to a thorough theoretical analysis. Due to the fact that revenge is an intrapersonal phenomenon, the development of methodological tools, including psychodiagnostic techniques, is necessary for the development of revenge research.

The critically acclaimed 2018 Australian film Jirga follows an ex-Australian soldier, Mike Wheeler, who returns to Afghanistan three years after a firefight during which he kills a civilian. Wheeler returns at risk of his death to confess his guilt to the man's community and the film examines themes of forgiveness and revenge, guilt, trauma, justice, and, as one Afghani tells Wheeler when he explains what he is doing back in Afghanistan, whether 'war is like this'.) This article will explore the ways Jirga uses the generic forms of the war film to convey meaning; it interrogates the usefulness of positioning films as either adhering to or subverting generic tropes, and instead points to the historically contingent evolution of generic tropes across time and place. With this understanding we can see genre tropes as complex, ambiguous, and sometimes even contradictory, attempts to develop meaning out of wartime experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on the framework of interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory (IPARTheory), this special issue edited by Ronald P. Rohner, Sumbleen Ali, and Jennifer E. Lansford explores forgiveness and vengeance within the context of the Muslim world. Examination of the precursors of forgiveness and vengeance holds significance because vengeance typically correlates with adverse physical and psychological health outcomes. We suggest ways to advance research outlined in the special issue, such as assessing cross-cultural invariance and using diverse research designs. Moreover, increasing the diversity of socioeconomic status in studies conducted in the Muslim world and exploring hypotheses in high-income countries are necessary for contextually nuanced research. Overall, this special issue offers valuable insights into the dynamics of forgiveness and vengeance and highlights the role of culture and gender on psychological well-being across diverse contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated relations among memories of parental (maternal and paternal) acceptance-rejection, forgiveness, and vengeance, as mediated by psychological (mal)adjustment. The sample consists of 323 Turkish adults (50% females; Age range: 18–61 years; Mage = 35.73, SD = 10.41) from Istanbul, Turkiye. Participants responded to mother and father versions of the adult Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (adult PARQ; short form), the adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire (adult PAQ; short form), the Heartland Forgiveness Scale, the Vengeance Scale, and the Personal Information Form. The results showed that both men and women remembered their parents as substantially warm and accepting during childhood and self-reported having fair psychological adjustment. Men and women were found to be equally likely to be forgiving as unforgiving and reported no dispositions toward vengeance. However, men reported higher levels of vengeance as compared to women. Psychological adjustment mediated the relations between parental acceptance and forgiveness, while psychological maladjustment mediated the relations between parental rejection and vengefulness for women and men. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The studies in this special issue on forgiveness and vengeance in the Muslim world explore three hypotheses drawn from interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory (IPARTheory): (1) Adults' memories of maternal and paternal acceptance in childhood are associated with the disposition toward forgiveness, as mediated by psychological adjustment. (2) Adults' memories of maternal and paternal rejection in childhood are associated with the disposition toward vengeance, as mediated by psychological maladjustment. (3) There are no significant gender differences in relations between adults' (men's and women's) memories of parental acceptance-rejection in childhood and adults' disposition toward forgiveness or vengeance, as mediated by psychological (mal)adjustment. Results of most studies reported here conclude that memories of parental (maternal and paternal) acceptance in childhood are significantly related to men's and women's disposition toward forgiveness and vengeance as mediated by psychological (mal)adjustment. However, gender and cultural differences also sometimes appear as significant contributors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated whether adults' memories of parental acceptance-rejection in childhood predict their current levels of forgiveness and vengeance as mediated by psychological (mal)adjustment. The data were collected from 252 young adults (Women = 137, Men = 115, Age range = 18 – 22 years; Mage = 19.42; SD = 0.99). Measures used were the Adult Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ) short form for fathers and mothers, the Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ) short form for adults, the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), the Vengeance Scale (VS-10), and the Personal Information Form. Mediation analysis indicated that memories of maternal and paternal rejection predicted vengeance as mediated by psychological maladjustment among both men and women. Further, women's and men's memories of parental (both maternal and paternal) acceptance predicted forgiveness as mediated by psychological adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated relations among adults' memories of parental acceptance-rejection in childhood and adults' current dispositions toward forgiveness and vengeance, as mediated by psychological (mal)adjustment. Data were collected from 258 adults (female = 183, Age range = 17–47 years; Mage = 39; SD = 11.4). Measures used were the short forms of the maternal and paternal Adult Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaires (PARQ), the short form of the Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ), the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), the Vengeance Scale (VS-10), and a Personal Information Form (PIF). Results showed that maternal and paternal rejection was positively associated with psychological maladjustment and negatively correlated with forgiveness for both men and women. Moreover, psychological maladjustment showed a negative relation with forgiveness and a positive relation with vengeance. Findings revealed that parental (maternal and paternal) rejection was not significantly associated with vengeance for men. However, maternal (not paternal) rejection was significantly associated with a vengeance for women. Path analysis revealed a significant indirect effect of maternal and paternal rejection on forgiveness and vengeance through psychological maladjustment. Results found no significant gender differences in the path analyses. Findings are discussed considering the Iranian culture and religious beliefs. Implications of the results and future research directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated relations among parental (maternal and paternal) acceptance-rejection and dispositions toward forgiveness and vengeance, as mediated by psychological (mal)adjustment. Data were collected using convenience sampling from 341 adults (87% females) ranging from 18 years to above 52 years old. Measures used were short forms of the maternal and paternal Adult Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaires (PARQ) to investigate recollections of parental acceptance-rejection, the short form of the Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ) to evaluate which participants were psychologically (mal)adjusted, the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), the Vengeance Scale (VS-10) to investigate levels of forgiveness and vengeance respectively, and a Personal Information Form (PIF). The results indicated that participants perceived significant signs of paternal rejection and substantial maternal acceptance during childhood. Men and women self-reported fair psychological adjustment. Women reported having no disposition toward vengeance, whereas men slightly leaned toward vengeance. Participants were equally likely to be unforgiving as forgiving. Psychological adjustment mediated the relations between maternal acceptance (but not paternal acceptance) and forgiveness among men and women. Psychological maladjustment mediated the relations between maternal rejection and vengeance among women, but not men. Psychological maladjustment did not mediate relations between paternal rejection and vengeance. Limitations and implications of the findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated relations among adolescents' perceptions of parental acceptance and rejection, psychological (mal)adjustment, forgiveness, and vengeance in the predominantly Muslim country of Pakistan. Participants included adolescent males (Mage = 17, SD = 1.4, range = 15–19) from madrassas (educational institutions for Islamic instruction; n = 355) and public schools (n = 355). They responded to short forms of the maternal and paternal Adult Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaires (PARQ), the Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ), the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), the Vengeance Scale (VS-10), and a Personal Information Form (PIF). Findings revealed that both the madrassa students and the public school students perceived their mothers (but not their fathers) to be warm and loving. The adolescents also reported fair psychological adjustment, and on average, were forgiving and non-vengeful. However, madrassa students reported perceiving their parents—especially their mothers—as more loving and accepting than did public school students. Additionally, madrassa students reported better psychological adjustment, a greater tendency to be forgiving, and a lesser tendency to be vengeful than did public school students. Maternal and paternal rejection were positively correlated with psychological maladjustment and vengeance, whereas maternal and paternal acceptance were associated with psychological adjustment and forgiveness among both groups of students. Psychological adjustment was a significant mediator of the relation between parental acceptance and the disposition toward forgiveness for both groups. Psychological maladjustment was not a significant mediator between paternal rejection and vengeance among madrassa students, but not public school students. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims to understand factors that explain the use of revenge and forgiveness by Hindu and Muslim group members in reaction to the rival group's negative reciprocal behaviour based on norms of negative reciprocity. Design/methodology/approach: Participants from Hindu (n = 175) and Muslim (n = 134) groups in India were presented with two norm-violating situations. Situation 1 involved an intergroup episode and Situation 2 involved an inter-community episode. Their own group members had engaged in the violation of the norms of the other group to which the rival group members had responded negatively. Participants anticipated the likelihood of their group members using revenge or forgiveness in response to the other group's negative reaction. These reactions were predicted by religious, political and cultural identities, fraternalistic relative deprivation (FRD), relative power, anger and hate, and perception of the appropriateness of their reaction. Findings: Social identities predicted intergroup revenge and forgiveness differently for the two groups in the two situations. The stronger religious identity of Muslims, not of Hindus, reduced the likelihood of their using revenge but increased it for forgiveness in both situations. Political identity associated positively with forgiveness in Situation 2 for both groups. Cultural identity predicted the likelihood of Muslims opting for forgiveness in both situations. FRD was not a significant predictor of revenge or forgiveness for Muslims. In the case of Hindus, it reduced the likelihood of their engaging in forgiveness in Situation 2. Relative power associated positively with the likelihood of Muslims, not Hindus, using revenge in both situations. Anger increased the possibility of Hindus reacting in revenge, as well as, forgiveness in the two situations. Anger did not predict revenge for Muslims but it related negatively with forgiveness in the two situations. Stronger hate was associated with revenge for Muslims. The choice of using revenge or forgiveness by own group members was positively predicted by the norms of negative reciprocity for both Hindus and Muslims. Research limitations/implications: The study used a convenience sample of young people which reduces the generalizability of the findings. Social implications: The findings of this study have implications for designing interventions for resolving intergroup conflicts in various social settings. Originality/value: The paper adds to the norm violation theory of intergroup relations by focusing on counter-reactions and the understanding of the dynamics of intergroup conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores how destination brand hate develops over time after a negative experience. Drawing on the trajectory method, participants were asked to graphically trace the course of their negative feelings toward destinations and to discuss the drivers and consequences of those feelings. This study identifies four types of trajectories of brand hate: "revenge for destination's complete failure," "avoidance due to environmental discontent," "forgiveness beyond control," and "resilient destination devotion." These four types of trajectories differ in the factors that lead to hate, in the duration of feelings of hate over time as well as in the consequences of hate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the personality correlates of dispositional interpersonal forgiveness (forgiveness of others) have been well characterized, those of dispositional selfforgiveness are less well understood. Moreover, when the personality correlates are examined for both types of forgiveness, the comparison has been based on participants' self-report ratings on questionnaires. The current study sought to address these gaps in the literature by adopting a scenario-based approach, which has been used less frequently, especially in self-forgiveness research. A total of 160 participants read six fictional scenarios, each describing a severe transgression, from the perspective of the transgressor (self-forgiveness, n = 78) or the victim (interpersonal forgiveness, n = 82) of the transgression, and then responded to several items assessing different facets of forgiveness (avoidance, revenge, and benevolence). Participants' personality (Big Five) and explanatory style were also assessed. Consistent with prior literature, agreeableness and neuroticism generally predicted different facets of interpersonal forgiveness. These two personality traits also predicted facets of self-forgiveness, but, additionally, conscientiousness and one's tendency to internalize failure (the personal component of explanatory style) uniquely predicted self-forgiveness, especially avoidance motivations. These results point to both similarities and differences in the personality correlates of interpersonal and self-forgiveness. As a secondary, more exploratory aim, the current study compared the results from our scenario-based assessment of forgiveness to those based on a commonly used questionnaire, the Other and Self subscales of the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). As expected, the Other subscale of the HFS were associated with levels of interpersonal forgiveness assessed with our transgression scenarios, but, surprisingly, the HFS Self subscale was more strongly related to interpersonal than self-forgivess assessed with scenarios. Moreover, the Self subscale was not associated with levels of self-forgiveness assessed with transgression scenarios, except for avoidance motivations. These results suggest that scenario-based and questionnaire-based methods may capture different facts of forgiveness and cannot be used interchangeably, especially for the assessment of self-forgiveness. More generally, the current study illustrates the importance of conducting direct within-study comparisons of interpersonal and self-forgiveness as well as of different assessment methods to better understand the similarities and differences between the two types of forgiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All close relationships come with the risk of experiencing betrayal. Despite its relevance for interpersonal relationships, the literature lacks updated knowledge about the types of betrayals people are more likely to experience and their differential consequences. This paper's aim is twofold: first, to replicate and update past findings from the 1990s to 2000s regarding the typology of betrayal narratives; and second, to provide a novel test of the role of causal attributions for response to the betrayal. It presents a quantitative analysis of more than 900 betrayal narratives from British, French and Swiss respondents (students and community participants). Participants freely reported a past episode of betrayal (betrayal narrative). Results revealed that unfaithfulness from a romantic partner was the most commonly reported instance of betrayal (17%), but there were also frequent occurrences of disappointing one's hopes and expectations, lying, revealing secrets, manipulating and taking advantage, gossiping and slandering, cutting ties unexpectedly, and failing to offer assistance during time of need. Most cases involved a close friend (27%) or romantic partner (30%); while others involved family members and people in the workplace. The most common behavioural responses were to confront or cut ties with the betrayer. Forgiveness seemed possible, especially for cases that had triggered less anger. Revenge was rarely reported overall, except in cases that had triggered more anger. Finally, causal attributions (to intrinsic vs. group‐based characteristics of the betrayer, to the situation and to the victim themselves) were related to different response to the betrayal and more specifically to forgiveness. These results contribute to developing a better typology of betrayal in interpersonal relationships. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forgiveness has a connection to religion and spirituality. Yet, little is known about how religious and spiritual people actually forgive. The present study investigated how religion and spirituality are used to make sense of forgiveness. The narratives of seven interviewees were chosen for close analysis of their experiences of forgiveness. McAdams's life story interview method and narrative analysis were applied. Five themes were formulated: (1) forgiveness as Christian duty, (2) forgiveness as God's miracle, (3) forgiveness through praying, (4) forgiveness through God's sacrifice, and (5) forgiveness as God's mercy. The findings indicate that God was important to the interviewees and supported their forgiveness process. Subthemes of revenge and justice suggest that sometimes forgiveness and revenge motives may be intertwined. Forgiveness was a divine process for the participants, and some felt that they would not have been able to forgive without God. Attributing forgiveness to God may serve the forgiveness process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Intergroup conflict is a costly and persistent aspect of social life, and one that often carries great moral significance for those who participate in it. Ostensibly moral behaviors can provide a path to social status in groups, as when self-sacrificing in-group members gain respect and prestige relative to their peers. This article bridges these two ideas to examine the perceived morality and status worthiness of intergroup revenge and forgiveness, and the moral accounts used to justify them. Using an original survey experiment conducted on a national probability sample in the United States, we examine everyday intergroup conflicts across national, sports, and political identities. We find forgiveness is perceived as more moral, and in turn more status worthy, than revenge. Justifications for moral judgments typically drew on accounts of harm/care, reciprocity, and avoiding chaos and disorder. This contributes to research on conflict, group dynamics, status, and morality.

The present article aims to elucidate whether offender unforgiveness predicts organizationally targeted displaced revenge and whether this effect occurs because offender‐directed feelings spill over to shape feelings towards the group. Two studies (Study 1a/1b) showed that unforgiveness predicts organizationally directed displaced revenge in the form of counterproductive workplace behaviours against an organization, mediated by perceived group betrayal. Study 2 investigated whether the relationships between unforgiveness, perceived group betrayal, and displaced revenge are moderated by group embodiment: the extent to which the offender is closely connected to, identified with, and in alignment with the group. With an experimental design that manipulated group embodiment and transgressor status, we found that unforgiveness and perceived group betrayal predict higher levels of displaced revenge under conditions of high rather than low group embodiment. Study 2 further showed that displaced revenge intentions operate in addition to, not in place of, revenge intentions towards the offender. Implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article turns to Hannah Arendt's Eichmann in Jerusalem in order to illustrate the difficulties involved in approaching the (formerly) metaphysical concept of evil as a secular phenomenon. It asks how the advocate of plurality, natality and forgiveness could also vouch for the death sentence of Eichmann based on a rhetoric of retribution and revenge. It then shows that Arendt's surprisingly consistent view of evil is based on a quasi-ontological understanding of the human condition that allowed her to negate Eichmann's humanity. Rather than simply unmasking a metaphysical account in disguise, however, the article develops an alternative perspective that emerges from the conversation between Arendt and Jaspers. It argues that Jaspers's interpretation of Kant offers a way to defend the idea of secular evil and judge Eichmann on the basis of his thoughtlessness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intergroup conflict is a costly and persistent aspect of social life, and one that often carries great moral significance for those who participate in it. Ostensibly moral behaviors can provide a path to social status in groups, as when self- sacrificing in- group members gain respect and prestige relative to their peers. This article bridges these two ideas to examine the perceived morality and status worthiness of intergroup revenge and forgiveness, and the moral accounts used to justify them. Using an original survey experiment conducted on a national probability sample in the United States, we examine everyday intergroup conflicts across national, sports, and political identities. We find forgiveness is perceived as more moral, and in turn more status worthy, than revenge. Justifications for moral judgments typically drew on accounts of harm/ care, reciprocity, and avoiding chaos and disorder. This contributes to research on conflict, group dynamics, status, and morality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to validate the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivation Inventory (TRIM- 18) on the Slovak population. One non-functional item had to be excluded from the Slovak version of the TRIM-18, so it is referred to as TRIM-17. The scale was verified on a representative group of adults in the productive age bracket of 18-65 years (n = 1209). The three-factor structure of the scale was corroborated. The interrelated factors of avoidance and revenge correlate negatively with the factor of benevolence. All three subscales show sufficient internal consistency (ω = .77 -- .94 in different groups), and the total score has reliability of ω = .94 -- .96. The validity of the questionnaire was corroborated by criterion validity (high correlations with other forgiveness scales) and construct validation (convergence with satisfaction with life and happiness, and divergence with anxiety, depression, and anger). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Transgression Related Interpersonal Motivations (TRIM) scale measures revenge, avoidance, and benevolence in response to social transgressions that, typically, comprise acts of indirect aggression. We tailored the TRIM for use in forensic psychiatric and victimological settings by slightly altering the instruction to include transgressions that comprise direct as well as indirect aggression. In this study, we examined the factor structure and psychometric qualities of this adapted Dutch version of the TRIM. Data was collected in adolescents from three different educational levels (N = 455) and in (ex)detainees (N = 65). Three unambiguous and internally consistent factors corroborated a priori conceptualizations. Associations with social desirability, dispositional anger, dispositional vengeance, accomplished revenge, and accomplished forgiveness supported construct validity. Mean scores from (ex)detainees did not differ from the student participants, although the former reported more incidents of physical and sexual violence. Hence, the TRIM appears useful as an aid in risk assessment of known offenders, threat assessment of as yet unknown offenders, and efforts to support victims of violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present the results of Polish validation of Transgression – Related Interpersonal Motivations questionnaire (TRIM-18) by McCullough, Root, and Cohen (2006) which measures the phenomena of forgiveness. The article contains a description of the procedure of Polish translation, the results of the test reliability, discriminant and confirmatory validity. The study was conducted among 530 participants aged between 18 and 84 (345 females and 185 males). Eleven questionnaires were used for assessing the validity of the measurement. This study confirms that the structure of Polish TRIM-18 is relevant to the English language version. Polish TRIM-18 is also a very reliable tool. It can be successfully used in Polish conditions.

"Conflict and resolution: the ethics of forgiveness, revenge, and punishment" is a book edited by Paula Satne and Krisanna M. Scheiter that explores the morality of blame, the relationship between punishment and revenge, and the nature and role of forgiveness. The book consists of sixteen chapters divided into three parts, each examining different philosophical and psychological perspectives on these topics. The authors critically analyze concepts from great philosophers such as Aristotle and Seneca, and also discuss forgiveness from interpersonal and political perspectives. The book provides a comprehensive understanding of human attitudes and conflict resolution, making it a valuable resource for academics, researchers, and students in peace studies, moral philosophy, and social psychology. [Extracted from the article]

Grudges are a common response to an interpersonal transgression that have received limited empirical attention. In the current research, we developed a self‐report measure of holding a grudge—the grudge aspect measure. The items were based on key findings from van Monsjou et al.'s (2021) thematic analysis: the six underlying components of holding a grudge identified in their analysis (need for validation, moral superiority, inability to let go, latency, sever ties, and expectations of the future); the cyclical process of holding a grudge which is characterized by persistent negative affect and intrusive thoughts that interfere with one's quality of life; and the definition of a grudge as sustained feelings of hurt and anger that dissipate over time but are easily reignited. Across three studies, we validated an 18‐item scale capturing three aspects of holding a grudge: disdain, feelings of dislike and intolerance for the transgressor; emotional persistence, sustained negative affect such as anger and hurt; and perceived longevity, perceptions of never being able to let go of the grudge. As expected, these aspects of holding a grudge were linked to less forgiveness and greater general unforgiveness, as well as revenge, avoidance, and rumination. Topics for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need of the people that decided to go through aa restorative process are multiple and diverse. Forgiveness becomes one of the possible pursuits, both of whom asks for it as of those who decide to provide it. The inquiry of this polysemic and complex act in a restorative process is the central topic of this article and for inquiring it it employs a qualitative methodology with the purpose of starting to highlight some of the possible meanings around the topic. The direct observation of the restorative interventions (mediations, circles, family conferences); the in depth interviews directed towards the actor behind these processes and to facilitators in charge of this actions and the analysis of a vast amount of documents produced by the teams responsible of these procedures allow the research to affirm that forgiveness, as a consequence of a restorative dialogue between a victim and someone who committed a crime is configured as one of the most important pillars of Restorative Justice, as well as a transfigurator of the pursuits of almost everyone involved in these spaces. Likewise, the construction of an adequate process for asking and receiving forgiveness becomes a sort of handcraft between the parties and pursuits as its primary objective the restoration of the stolen peace. Considering that forgiveness cannot modify nor repair the past, it does has an absolute inherence in the future, given that it allows working on the injury made by the offender not from vengeance but from attenuation of negative emotions and with this provide a key to the offender for opening the doors for a new vital scenario. This, the analysis of forgiveness as a bidirectional bond gains relevance for understanding the concept in its true essence and the role of restorative justice in the transformation of the future of people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forgiveness helps individuals overcome their desire to take revenge and helps improve physical and mental well-being. This study tends to investigate the relationship between forgiveness, revenge, and well-being. The data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire from 101 participants in Karachi, Pakistan. To analyze the data, correlation & t-test were used, and the result showed no significant relation between forgiveness and well-being. Though, one of the surprising findings of the present study is that it shows a positive association between revenge and well-being. Moreover, no gender difference has been found in forgiveness and vengeance. The present study’s findings suggest that educational institutes and media should design programs that teach love, compassion, and empathy. As a result, it would help individuals make their lives better and build a peaceful society.

This study examined the psychological processes through which self-compassion relates to forgiveness of interpersonal transgressors. Specifically, this study focused on the mediating roles of rumination about interpersonal transgressors and subjective temporal distance from interpersonal transgressions. After completing a measure of self-compassion, participants recalled a time when they were hurt by others. Then, they responded to measures including subjective temporal distance, rumination, and forgiveness. A path model showed that self-compassion was associated with greater subjective temporal distance, lower revenge, and lower avoidance through lower rumination. In addition, self-compassion positively predicted benevolence. Results implied that people with high self-compassion may be less likely to ruminate, which may help them feel greater temporal distance from past interpersonal transgressions and forgive transgressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Everyday maltreatments can threaten people's basic sense of being human. Can victims restore their sense of humanness after it has been damaged by an offense and, if so, how? Four studies compared forgiving and taking revenge as responses to victimization. In Study 1, participants recalled a time they either forgave or took revenge against someone who had hurt them. In Studies 2 and 3, they imagined being victimized by a coworker and then either forgiving or taking revenge against him. In Study 4, they wrote either a forgiving or a vengeful letter to a transgressor who had committed an offense against them. Each methodology revealed that, compared with revenge, forgiveness was more effective at rehumanizing the self; indeed, forgiveness produced feelings of humanness that nearly exceeded levels experienced by nonvictimized participants (Study 3). Studies 3 and 4 also provided evidence that perceiving 1's forgiveness as moral contributes to a restored sense of humanness. Study 4 further revealed important downstream predictive consequences of a restored sense of self-humanity following forgiveness—less self-harm, a greater sense of belonging to the human community, and greater importance of one's moral identity. Extending past research on the benefits of forgiveness, this work highlights the agency that victims have to repair their humanness in the wake of a dehumanizing offense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cybervictimization is a public health concern in adolescence. Victims of cyberbullying may present with important short- and long-term sequelae. Specifically, past research has demonstrated positive associations between being cybervictimized and risk of suicide among adolescents. Nonetheless, the underlying mechanisms that may mediate or moderate this relationship remain unclear. The present research examined perceived stress as a mediator and forgiveness as a moderator to explore the relationship between cybervictimization and suicidal ideation. Specifically, vengeance, avoidance, and benevolence motivations, as a means of measuring forgiveness experienced, were analyzed as moderators in the relations between cybervictimization and suicidal ideation. The sample included 1,821 adolescents (954 girls) who ranged in age from 12 to 17 years from nine centers. Adolescents' self-reported perceived stress levels, cybervictimization, and forgiveness were collected. A mediation and a moderated mediation analyses were used to explore the aim of the present study. Results suggest that, after controlling for sex and age, perceived stress partially mediates the association between cybervictimization and suicidal ideation. Furthermore, the mediation effects of perceived stress were independently moderated by vengeance and avoidance. Thus, revenge and avoidance might intensify the adverse impact of perceived stress on suicidal ideation. These results highlight how and when cybervictimization is related to suicidal ideation. We discuss the results in relation to previous research and consider their practical implications. These findings suggest that adolescents' perceived stress, together with vengeance and avoidance motivations, may be key targets for prevention and intervention programs dealing with cybervictimization. This highlights the need to implement treatment and prevention programs focused on decreasing such motivations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are two ways to end mutual disputes: (1) reconciliation and decision and (2) reconciliation. From the narrations of the great muhaddithin and the jurists, it is clear that reconciliation is better in many respects than "judgment and judgment" because reconciliation: * Mutual hatred turns into mutual love and affection. • qata rahmi is replaced by salah rahmi. * The spirit of forgiveness grows. * Protects against litigation costs. Etc. etc. While judging: * The spirit of revenge is created. * Emotions of compassion arise. * In order to degrade another, one has to commit non-shariah matters. Wealth is misused to prolong the case. Etc. Therefore, the judge should first try to reconcile the parties. Especially if the parties have kinship and kinship, or they belong to the people of knowledge and grace, then the judge must work to delay the decision between them. So that they may reconcile. If they do not agree to reconcile and want to decide, then the judge should decide between them as a last resort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leader forgiveness refers to the abandonment of anger, resentment, and the desire to revenge against the offender, and it not only means forgiving errors or mistakes made by employees, but also means empathizing and understanding employees, and to see things from another point of view. This research examines the possible "dark side" of leader forgiveness by examining its influence on employee's unethical pro-organizational behavior, as well as the mediating effect of gratitude and the moderating effect of moral identity. We used questionnaire survey methodology to collect data from 263 Chinese employees to test our hypotheses. Results show that leader forgiveness had a positive influence on employee's unethical pro-organizational behavior, and gratitude mediated the influence of leader forgiveness on unethical pro-organizational behavior. The relationship between gratitude and unethical pro-organizational behavior, and the indirect influence of leader forgiveness on unethical pro-organizational behavior through gratitude, were moderated by moral identity. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]