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Learning Objectives: After studying this article, the participant should be able to: 1. Have an in-depth understanding of the functional and aesthetic requirements of lower extremity reconstruction. 2. Describe the considerations for achieving an optimal aesthetic outcome in the primary reconstruction settings. 3. Describe modalities of secondary flap revision for achieving an optimal aesthetic outcome., Summary: Significant advancements have been made in the management of lower extremity reconstruction since Dr. Taylor's seminal case in 1973. Improvements in our understanding of vascular anatomy and evolution of microsurgical techniques have allowed for an ever-increasing array of free tissue transfer options for lower extremity reconstruction. The resulting expertise has engendered a paradigm shift toward the reconstructive elevator approach, with increased emphasis on cosmetic results. In the primary setting, aesthetic considerations play an important role in precoverage wound preparation, flap selection, and harvest technique, with the goal of achieving excellent like-with-like reconstruction at the time of initial surgery. Flap selection should be made to best match the three-dimensional architecture of the wound, and take into account the defect thickness, flap thickness, flap composition, and pedicle length. Primary flap thinning and harvest in the superficial fascial plane has been shown to be an effective modality to address excess adiposity and improve contour. Despite these efforts, secondary procedures are often required to optimize the limb's final appearance and functional outcomes, particularly in the foot and ankle region. These include debulking, liposuction, and staged excisions. As the field of limb salvage keeps evolving, aesthetics will continue to play an important role in extremity reconstruction planning and execution., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors have no financial interests or conflicts of interest to declare in relation to the content of this article., (Copyright © 2023 by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons.)

Background: Despite advanced wound care techniques, open fractures in the setting of lower extremity trauma remain a challenging pathology, particularly when free tissue transfer is required for coverage. We aimed to evaluate factors associated with flap failure in this setting using a large, heterogeneous patient population., Methods: Retrospective review of patients who underwent traumatic lower extremity free flap reconstruction (2002-2019). Demographics wound/vessel injury characteristics, pre and perioperative factors, and flap outcomes were analyzed., Results: One hundred eighty-eight free flaps met inclusion criteria, with 23 partial (12.2%) and 13 total (6.9%) flap failures. Angiography was performed in 87 patients, with arterial injury suffered in 43.1% of those evaluated. Time to flap coverage varied within 3 days (4.5%), 10 days (17.3%), or 30 days of injury (42.7%). In all, 41 (21.8%) subjects suffered from major flap complications, including failure and takebacks. Multivariate regression demonstrated the presence of posterior tibial (PT) artery injury predictive of both flap-failure (Odds ratio [OR] = 11.4, p < .015) and major flap complications (OR = 12.1, p < .012). Immunocompromised status was also predictive of flap failure (OR = 12.6, p < .004) and major complications (OR = 11.6, p < .007), while achieving flap coverage within 30 days was protective against flap complications (OR = 0.413, p < .049). Defect size, infection, and injury location were not associated with failure., Conclusions: When examining a large, heterogeneous patient cohort, free flap outcomes in the setting of lower extremity open fractures can be influenced by multiple factors. This presence of PT artery injury, flap coverage beyond 30 days of injury, and immunocompromised status appear predictive of flap complications in this context., (© 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Background: The use of free flaps from the medial femoral condyle has grown in popularity and is now a workhorse in the reconstruction of skeletal defects. The utility of this technique has not yet been described for the pediatric patient population. The authors present their series of pediatric patients who underwent surgery using a medial femoral condyle free flap or a variant thereof in skeletal reconstruction and demonstrate the efficacy of this technique in this population., Methods: A multi-institutional retrospective review of patients aged 18 years or younger who required a medial femoral condyle flap for skeletal reconstruction was undertaken. Operative technique, radiographs, and clinical outcomes were recorded. A novel technique (Innocenti) was used to avoid the distal femoral physis in which a Kirschner wire was placed under fluoroscopic guidance just proximal to the growth plate., Results: Thirteen patients met inclusion criteria, with an average age of 14.7 years (range, 7 to 18 years) and mean follow-up of 28 months (range, 3 to 120 months). Six were skeletally immature at the time of medial femoral condyle harvest, with the last patient having organic bone disease, putting her at risk for pathologic fracture. All 13 patients achieved bony union, and no patients suffered pathologic fractures or physeal injuries; no patients developed length discrepancies., Conclusions: The authors present the first series of corticocancellous medial femoral condyle free flaps in the pediatric population along with a novel technique to avoid injury to the physis in skeletally immature patients. This technique is effective for a variety of skeletal defects or nonunions and is safe for growing patients without causing physeal arrest or growth disturbance., Clinical Question/level of Evidence: Therapeutic, IV., (Copyright © 2021 by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons.)

Introduction: Traumatic intercalary defects of the tibia may be effectively managed with the free fibula flap. However, any alteration of limb alignment with residual bony angular deformity of the tibia must be also addressed. We describe the use of the free fibula flap in conjunction with external fixation to allow residual deformity correction and patient mobilization ambulation during healing of the free flap., Methods: Retrospective medical record review was conducted of patients with segmental tibial defects greater than 7 cm who underwent reconstruction with fibula free flap and simple pin-bar external fixation, followed by conversion to 6-axis computer-assisted multiplanar circular ring external fixation to correct residual bony deformity. Outcomes analyses included free flap complications, return to the operating room, complications associated with the external fixation, bony union, correction of residual deformity, amputation rate, visual analog pain scales, and patient satisfaction., Results: Eight patients (8 tibiae) underwent reconstruction. Mean tibial bone defect was 10.2 cm; all limbs had soft-tissue defects (mean size, 138 cm). Free fibula grafts were harvested as osteocutaneous or osteomyocutaneous flaps (average length, 12 cm). Complications included 1 delayed union and 3 (37.5%) patients readmitted for graft fracture. Ultimately, 100% of patients achieved graft union with satisfactory correction of residual limb deformity. Limb salvage rate was 100%., Discussion: Management of segmental tibial bone loss utilizing initial simple external fixation and microsurgical reconstruction followed by application of computer-assisted circular external fixator may provide a reliable reconstructive protocol for posttraumatic tibial defects with residual bone malalignment.

Background:  Traumatic limb salvage with free flap reconstruction versus primary amputation for lower extremity (LE) injuries remains an oft debated topic. Limb salvage has well-studied benefits and advances in microsurgery have helped reduce the complication rates. A subset of patients eventually requires secondary amputation after a failed attempt at limb salvage. A better understanding of risk factors that predict subsequent amputation after failed free flap reconstruction of LE injuries may improve operative management., Patients and Methods:  A retrospective study (2002-2019) was conducted on all patients who underwent free flap reconstruction of the LE within 120 days of the original inciting event at a single institution. Patient and operative factors were reviewed including comorbidities, severity of the injury, flap choice, outcomes, and complications. Predictors of subsequent amputation were analyzed., Results:  A total of 129 patients requiring free flap reconstructions for LE limb salvage met inclusion criteria. Anterolateral thigh flaps (70.5%) were performed most frequently. Secondary amputation occurred in 10 (7.8%) patients. Preoperative factors associated with eventual amputation include diabetes mellitus ( p  = 0.044), number of preoperative debridements ( p  = 0.013), evidence of any arterial injury/pathology ( p  = 0.008), specifically posterior tibial artery ( p  = < 0.0001), and degree of three-vessel runoff ( p  = 0.007). Operative factors associated with subsequent amputation include evidence of recipient artery injury/pathology ( p  = 0.008). Postoperative factors associated with secondary amputation include total flap failure ( p  = 0.001), partial flap failure ( p  = 0.002), minor complications ( p  = 0.037), and residual osteomyelitis ( p  = 0.028)., Conclusion:  Many factors contribute to the reconstructive surgical team's decision to proceed with limb salvage or perform primary amputation. Several variables are associated with failed limb salvage resulting in secondary amputation. Further studies are required to better guide management during the limb salvage process., Competing Interests: None declared., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

Aims: The integrity of the soft tissue envelope is crucial for successful treatment of infected total knee arthroplasty (TKA). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the rate of limb salvage, infection control, and clinical function following microvascular free flap coverage for salvage of the infected TKA., Methods: We retrospectively reviewed 23 microvascular free tissue transfers for management of soft tissue defects in infected TKA. There were 16 men and seven women with a mean age of 61.2 years (39 to 81). The median number of procedures performed prior to soft tissue coverage was five (2 to 9) and all patients had failed at least one two-stage reimplantation procedure. Clinical outcomes were measured using the Knee Society Scoring system for pain and function., Results: In all, one patient was lost to follow-up prior to 12 months. The remaining 22 patients were followed for a mean of 46 months (12 to 92). At latest follow-up, four patients (18%) had undergone amputation for failure of treatment and persistent infection. For the other 18 patients, 11 patients (50%) had maintained a knee prosthesis in place while seven patients had undergone resections for persistent infection but retained their limbs (32%). Reoperations were common following coverage and reimplantation. The median number of additional procedures was two (0 to 6). Clinical function was poor in patients who underwent reimplantation and retained a knee prosthesis following free flap coverage with a mean KSS score for pain and function of 44 (0 to 70) and 30 (0 to 65), respectively. All patients required an assistive device. Extensor mechanism problems and extensor lag requiring bracing were common following limb salvage and prosthesis reimplantation., Conclusion: Microvascular tissue transfer for management of infected TKA can be successful in limb salvage (82%) but clinical outcomes in salvaged limbs were poor. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(6 Supple A):176-180.

Background: Various surgical techniques exist for lower extremity reconstruction, but limited high-quality data exist to inform treatment strategies. Using multi-institutional data and rigorous matching, the authors evaluated the effectiveness and cost of three common surgical reconstructive modalities., Methods: All adult subjects with lower extremity wounds who received bilayer wound matrix, local tissue rearrangement, or free flap reconstruction were retrospectively reviewed (from 2010 to 2017). Cohorts' comorbidities and wound characteristics were balanced. Graft success at 180 days was the primary outcome; readmissions, reoperations, and costs were secondary outcomes., Results: Five hundred one subjects (166 matrix, 190 rearrangement, and 145 free flap patients) were evaluated. Matched subjects (n = 312; 104/group) were analyzed. Reconstruction success at 180 days for matrix, local tissue rearrangement, and free flaps was 69.2 percent, 91.3 percent, and 93.3 percent (p < 0.001), and total costs per subject were $34,877, $35,220, and $53,492 (p < 0.001), respectively. Median length of stay was at least 2 days longer for free flaps (p < 0.0001). Readmissions and reoperations were greater for free flaps. Local tissue rearrangement, if achievable, provided success at low cost. Free flaps were effective with large, traumatic wounds but at higher costs and longer length of stay. Matrices successfully treated older, obese patients without exposed bone., Conclusions: Lower extremity reconstruction can be performed effectively using multiple modalities with varying degrees of success and costs. Local tissue rearrangement and free flaps demonstrate success rates greater than 90 percent. Bilayer wound matrix-based reconstruction effectively treats a distinct patient population., Clinical Question/level of Evidence: Therapeutic, III.

Background: Although the surgical microscope remains the most common tool used for visual magnification for microsurgical anastomoses in free tissue transfer, loupe-only magnification for free flap breast reconstruction has been demonstrated to be safe and effective. To evaluate the loupe-only technique in lower extremity free flap reconstruction, the authors compared perioperative outcomes between microsurgical anastomoses performed with loupe magnification versus a surgical microscope., Methods: The authors conducted a two-institution retrospective study of soft-tissue free flaps for traumatic below-knee reconstruction. Optimal subgroup matching was performed using patient age, defect location, flap type (muscle versus fasciocutaneous), and time from injury (acute, <30 days; remote, >30 days) for conditional logistic regression analysis of perioperative outcomes., Results: A total of 373 flaps met inclusion criteria for direct matched comparison of anastomoses performed with loupe magnification (n = 150) versus a surgical microscope (n = 223). Overall major complication rates were 15.3 percent: take-back for vascular compromise, 7.8 percent; partial flap failure, 7.8 percent; and total flap loss, 5.4 percent. No differences were observed between the loupe and microscope groups regarding major complications (14.0 percent versus 16.1 percent; OR, 0.78; 95 percent CI, 0.38 to 1.59), take-back for vascular compromise (5.3 percent versus 9.4 percent; OR, 0.51; 95 percent CI, 0.19 to 1.39), any flap failure (13.3 percent versus 13.0 percent; OR, 1.21; 95 percent CI, 0.56 to 2.64), partial flap failure (7.3 percent versus 8.1 percent; OR, 1.04; 95 percent CI, 0.43 to 2.54), and total flap loss (6.0 percent versus 4.9 percent; OR, 1.63; 95 percent CI, 0.42 to 6.35)., Conclusions: Perioperative complication rates, take-backs for vascular compromise, partial flap losses, and total flap failure rates were not significantly different between the matched loupe and microscope groups. Overall microsurgical success rates in traumatic lower extremity free flap reconstruction appear to be independent of the microsurgical technique used for visual magnification., Clinical Question/level of Evidence: Therapeutic, III.

Background: Free flaps derived from the medial genicular artery (MGA) system, including the medial femoral condyle (MFC) and medial femoral trochlear (MFT) flaps, are potential reconstructive options to address upper and lower extremity bony pathology. Our primary aim was to comprehensively search the literature to describe the spectrum of pathology treated with these flaps, and to assess patient outcomes to improve our understanding of expected union and complication rates., Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic review using Pubmed and Embase databases with citation cross-referencing was performed to identify all original clinical articles characterizing MGA flap treatment of upper and lower extremity pathology., Results: The initial search identified 173 articles which was narrowed down to 40 meeting inclusion criteria, representing a total of 248 cases: 174 and 74 in the upper and lower extremities, respectively. Sixteen distinct recipient sites were identified with union rates ranging from 66 to 100% (98.7% overall). The majority (83.9%) of patients had undergone prior failed surgery. Major complications (those with limb/flap loss or requiring unplanned reoperation) were more frequent for lower versus upper extremity applications (17.1% vs. 6.2%, respectively). Donor site femoral fracture or persistent knee dysfunction occurred in 0.8% and 0.4% of patients, respectively., Conclusions: MGA free flaps are a versatile option for upper and lower extremity osseous reconstruction, offering high rates of union with minimal complications for a complex patient population. This study furthers our understanding of patient outcomes following MGA flap reconstruction, which previously was limited to case reports and small case series., (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Clinical indications are expanding for the use of fasciocutaneous free flaps in lower extremity traumatic reconstruction. The authors assessed the impact of muscle versus fasciocutaneous free flap coverage on reconstructive and functional outcomes., Methods: A multicenter retrospective review was conducted on all lower extremity traumatic free flaps performed at Duke University (1997 to 2013) and the University of Pennsylvania (2002 to 2013). Muscle and fasciocutaneous flaps were compared in two subgroups (acute trauma and chronic traumatic sequelae), according to limb salvage, ambulation time, and flap outcomes., Results: A total of 518 lower extremity free flaps were performed for acute traumatic injuries (n = 238) or chronic traumatic sequelae (n = 280). Muscle (n = 307) and fasciocutaneous (n = 211) flaps achieved similar cumulative limb salvage rates in acute trauma (90 percent versus 94 percent; p = 0.56) and chronic trauma subgroups (90 percent versus 88 percent; p = 0.51). Additionally, flap choice did not impact functional recovery (p = 0.83 for acute trauma; p = 0.49 for chronic trauma). Flap groups did not differ in the rates of flap thrombosis, flap salvage, flap loss, or tibial nonunion requiring bone grafting. Fasciocutaneous flaps were more commonly reelevated for subsequent orthopedic procedures (p < 0.01) and required fewer secondary skin-grafting procedures (p = 0.01). Reconstructive and functional outcomes remained heavily influenced by injury severity., Conclusions: Muscle and fasciocutaneous free flaps achieved comparable rates of limb salvage and functional recovery. Flap selection should be guided by defect characteristics and reconstructive needs., Clinical Question/level of Evidence: Therapeutic, III.

Background  Free vascularized fibular flaps (FVFFs) are accepted surgical options to treat osteonecrosis of the femoral head and neck (ONFHN) to prevent conversion to total hip replacement (THR), yet many studies are single institution cohorts, with little generalizability. Purpose  The purpose of this study was to perform a systematic review examining the comparative effectiveness of FVFF to treat ONFHN, particularly preventing conversion to a THR and improving hip function/symptoms. Methods  We searched PubMed and EMBASE databases using femoral head, free fibula, and femoral neck keywords. Articles were excluded if not translated into English, n  < 10 hips, article was a compilation/review, outcomes were not relevant, or prior to 1994. If from the same institution, we included the largest cohort and excluded others within the same timeline. Two investigators independently reviewed articles and reported number of patients/hips, average age/follow-up time/graft survival before THR, Harris hip score, THR rate, complications, and radiographic progression rates. Results  We identified 128 and 157 articles from PubMed and EMBASE. After screening/duplicate removal, 21 studies were included from 14 institutions in 9 countries. Overall, 71% were level IV evidence. The average patient number was 129, number of hips was 166, age at surgery was 34 years, and follow-up time was 92 months. HHS improved on average 21.7 points, with the number of patients requiring THR being 19.4%. Graft survival before THR was 5.2 years, and 47.7% of hips had radiographic progression. Conclusions  There is a significant amount of level IV evidence describing the favorable role of FVFF to treat ONFHN. Although efficacious, there is a need for higher level evidence. The level of evidence is 3., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

Background: Thrombocytosis in patients undergoing lower extremity free tissue transfer may be associated with increased risk of microvascular complications. This study assessed whether preoperative platelet counts predict lower extremity free flap thrombosis., Methods: All patients undergoing lower extremity free tissue transfer at Duke University from 1997 to 2013 and at the University of Pennsylvania from 2002 to 2013 were retrospectively identified. Logistic regression was used to assess whether preoperative platelet counts independently predict flap thrombosis, controlling for baseline and operative factors., Results: A total of 565 patients underwent lower extremity free tissue transfer, with an overall flap thrombosis rate of 16 percent (n = 91). Elevated preoperative platelet counts were independently associated with both intraoperative thrombosis (500 ± 120 versus 316 ± 144 × 10/liter; p < 0.001) and postoperative thrombosis (410 ± 183 versus 320 ± 143 × 10/liter; p = 0.040) in 215 patients who sustained acute lower extremity trauma within 30 days before reconstruction. In acute trauma patients, preoperative platelet counts predicted a four-fold increased risk of intraoperative thrombosis (cutoff value, 403 × 10/liter; OR, 4.08; p < 0.001) and a two-fold increased risk of postoperative thrombosis (cutoff value, 361 × 10/liter; OR, 2.16; p = 0.005). In patients who did not sustain acute trauma, preoperative platelet counts predicted a four-fold increased risk of intraoperative thrombosis (cutoff value, 352 × 10/liter; OR, 3.82; p = 0.002)., Conclusions: Acute trauma patients with elevated preoperative platelet counts are at increased risk for lower extremity free flap complications. Prospective evaluation is warranted for guiding risk stratification and targeted treatment strategies., Clinical Question/level of Evidence: Risk, III.

This article demonstrates a technique for the treatment of scaphoid fracture waist and proximal pole nonunions with avascular necrosis using a free vascularized medial femoral condyle flap. We present our surgical technique and representative case examples in which the scapholunate ligament, a key structure required to preserve carpal kinematics, is spared., (Copyright © 2016 American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Successful foot and ankle soft tissue reconstruction is dependent on a clear understanding of the vascular supply to the foot. The aim of this study was to identify risk factors for reconstructive failure following foot and ankle free tissue transfer., Methods: The authors retrospectively reviewed their 17-year institutional experience with 231 foot and ankle free flaps performed in 225 patients to determine predictors of postoperative foot ischemia and flap failure. Postoperative foot ischemia was defined as ischemia resulting in tissue necrosis, separate from the reconstruction site., Results: Six (3%) patients developed postoperative foot ischemia, and 28 (12%) patients experienced flap failure. Chronic ulceration (P = 0.02) and an elevated preoperative platelet count (P = 0.04) were independent predictors of foot ischemia. The presence of diabetes was predictive of flap failure (P = 0.05). Flap failure rates were higher in the setting of an abnormal preoperative angiogram (P = 0.04), although the type and number of occluded arteries did not influence outcome. Foot ischemia was more frequent following surgical revascularization in conjunction with free tissue transfer and the use of the distal arterial bypass graft for flap anastomosis (P < 0.01). Overall, no differences were observed in foot ischemia (P = 0.17) and flap failure (P = 0.75) rates when the flap anastomosis was performed to the diseased artery noted on angiography, compared with an unobstructed native tibial artery., Conclusions: Foot and ankle free tissue transfer may be performed with a low incidence of foot ischemia. Patients with diabetes, chronic ulceration, and an elevated preoperative platelet count are at higher risk for reconstructive failure. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 36:276-283, 2016., (© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: The decision to perform an end-to-end (ETE) or end-to-side (ETS) arterial anastomosis in lower extremity free tissue transfer has not been thoroughly evaluated in a large multisurgeon setting. The authors compared the reconstructive outcomes of lower extremity free flaps with ETE and ETS arterial anastomoses., Methods: The authors retrospectively reviewed their 17-year institutional experience with lower extremity free flaps to determine whether ETE or ETS arterial anastomoses were associated with foot ischemic complications and flap failure., Results: From 1996 to 2013, 398 patients underwent 413 lower extremity free flaps with ETE (66%) or ETS (34%) arterial anastomoses. The incidence of postoperative foot ischemia was 2% (n = 8). The flap failure rate was 11% (n = 45). The ETS technique was preferred in patients with fewer intact vessels to the foot (32% ETS for three-vessel runoff, 36% ETS for two-vessel runoff, and 50% ETS for single-vessel runoff) and when an intact recipient vessel was selected for anastomosis (60% ETS for intact vessel vs. 25% ETS for distally occluded vessel). No differences were observed in the foot ischemia (p = 0.45) and flap failure rates (p = 0.59) for ETE versus ETS arterial anastomoses. In subset analyses, the incidence of foot ischemia did not differ for either technique in the context of impaired vascular runoff or recipient vessel selection., Conclusion: No advantage was noted for ETE or ETS arterial anastomoses based on reconstructive outcomes. The choice of anastomotic technique in lower extremity free tissue transfer should be based on patient factors and the clinical circumstances encountered., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

External hemipelvectomy associated with trauma or during the operative management of musculoskeletal sarcomas may yield a soft tissue defect that can only be sufficiently covered by free tissue transfers. The application of "spare-parts surgery," such as a fillet of leg or thigh flap, uses distal uninvolved parts that are otherwise viable tissues as donor tissues to cover defects. This concept has great utility to achieve soft tissue coverage in challenging cases, such as hemipelvectomy. However, during such complicated and time-consuming cases, prolonged ischemia time of the proposed donor tissues can be problematic. We describe a technique developed by the senior author (SJK) that minimizes the ischemia time of donor free tissues during external hemipelvectomy. This technique is applicable to other surgeries where filleted spare parts are the donor-site source for free tissue transfer., (Copyright © 2015 British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: To compare the outcomes and complications of the anterolateral thigh free flap (ALT FF) versus other free muscle flaps for reconstruction of traumatic defects of the lower extremity., Design: Retrospective review from a single plastic and reconstructive surgical unit comparing outcomes between 2 free flap groups-ALT FF and other commonly used muscle free flaps., Setting: Tertiary referral University Hospital Level I Trauma Center., Patients: Hundred patients who underwent lower extremity salvage for traumatic injuries., Intervention: Free flap coverage of traumatic lower extremity injuries., Main Outcomes Measurements: Successful for limb salvage, intraoperative and postoperative complications., Data Synthesis: Categorical variables were analyzed using χ and Fisher exact tests; continuous variables were examined using Wilcoxon rank-sum test., Conclusions: The ALT FF is equivalent in success to other traditional nonfasciocutaneous free flaps but may provide a more durable supple coverage with all components of the native soft-tissue envelop that can be tailored to the reconstructive needs of the traumatized lower extremity. Limb salvage outcomes may still be heavily influenced by the original severity of injury., Level of Evidence: Therapeutic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Introduction: There is limited data on the indications, outcomes, and associated complications with use of interpositional vein grafts (IVG) in microsurgery. This study sought to critically examine and update the utility of this microsurgical technique., Methods: All microsurgical cases at a single institution from 2005 to 2011 were examined for use of IVGs in the primary procedure or during take back or salvage attempts. We examined the cohort overall and performed a subgroup analysis by timing of initial IVG., Results: In the study period, 1718 patients underwent 2368 free flaps. 51 IVGs were utilized in 38 patients (2.2%) and 38 flaps (1.6%). Eight (42.1%) of the primary procedure IVGs (n = 19) were planned preoperatively. Nine total flap losses (24%) occurred when IVGs were utilized, 89% of which occurred in the take back cohort (p = 0.02). However, planned IVG had a 100% success rate, and IVG utilized in the primary procedure overall had a 95% success rate. Importantly, A significantly higher rate of thrombotic events was noted in all primary cases where IVGs were utilized (p = 0.005)., Conclusions: This study demonstrates that IVGs can be utilized in primary free flap reconstructions with success rates exceeding 95%. However, in salvage procedures, the use of vein grafts does not approach the same rate of success likely due to multiple factors. Yet when utilized appropriately with thrombectomy and resection of the thrombosed vessel to healthy intima, IVGs can provide an important tool for flap salvage., Level of Evidence: prognostic/risk category, level II., (Copyright © 2015 British Association of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Open wounds around the knee joint can often be managed with local flaps; however, free tissue transfer may be required when local tissue options are unavailable or inadequate. Free tissue transfer around the knee can be challenging due to unique anatomic features of the joint. The outcomes of such procedures remain largely unreported., Methods: We retrospectively analyzed 33 patients who underwent 34 free tissue transfer reconstructions to the knee from 1993 to 2010. Twenty-four flaps were composed of soft tissue only and 10 flaps included a bony component. Patient demographics, details of the defect, operative characteristics, and clinical outcomes were reviewed. Outcomes included rates of flap failure, flap reexploration, and limb salvage., Results: Thirty-three (97%) of 34 flaps survived. One flap failed secondary to arterial thrombosis. In total, 6/34 flaps (18%) required reexploration (2 arterial thromboses and 4 venous thromboses). A wide variety of donor and recipient vessels were used. Vessel selection did not affect vascular reexploration. Overall, 88% of lower extremities were salvaged. Four of 10 (40%) patients receiving bone free flap reconstruction experienced delayed union and 2 (20%) of these required amputation for eventual nonunion., Conclusions: Free flap reconstruction of the knee has a high flap survival and limb preservation rate in threatened extremities. Flap survival rates in the knee are similar to reported rates elsewhere in the lower extremity. Despite flap survival, infected nonunions that occur after bone free flap reconstruction result in a high limb amputation rate.

The obesity epidemic continues to grow, and we have observed greater numbers of obese individuals among patients seeking lower extremity reconstruction at our institution. These patients may present a greater reconstructive challenge, thus we sought to identify risk factors and differences in outcomes among patients undergoing lower extremity reconstruction.In this study we have performed a retrospective cohort analysis of patients undergoing lower extremity reconstruction with free tissue transfer at our institution from 2005 to 2012. Patients were classified using the World Health Organization criteria for obesity. Records were reviewed for patient characteristics, mechanism of injury, indications for reconstruction, and surgical technique, with a focus on intraoperative and early postoperative complications and outcomes.A total of 43 out of the 119 patients undergoing lower extremity reconstruction were obese (body mass index ≥ 30). Mechanism of injury, wound location, and the indications for reconstruction were similar in both cohorts. No significant differences were found in operative characteristics and techniques, including the type of flap utilized, operative time, or thrombotic events. No significant differences were seen in complication rates overall, however, obese patients more frequently needed second flaps (11.6 vs. 0%, p=0.005).This study concludes that successful lower extremity reconstruction can be performed in the obese population, with few differences in complication rates and outcomes relative to healthy weight patients., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

Free functional muscle transfer (FFMT) replaces destroyed, denervated, or resected skeletal muscle units in the upper extremity with functioning skeletal muscle from other locations in the body. Common indications for FFMT include brachial plexus injuries, ischemic contracture, tumor resection, and extensive direct muscle trauma. Recent studies have focused on improving patient outcomes through refinements in muscle flap harvest and inset, donor nerve selection, and postoperative management. In this review, we assess and summarize the current literature on FFMT, with emphasis on etiopathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, postoperative management, and clinical outcomes., (Copyright © 2013 American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Avascular necrosis (AVN) or persistent nonunion occurs in situations of poor vascular supply. Some specific situations that plague the foot and ankle surgeon are talus nonunion, talus AVN, navicular AVN, and failed ankle arthrodesis with bone loss. The medial femoral condyle (MFC) flap has emerged as a popular source of vascularized corticocancelous bone. We present a series of cases demonstrating the versatility of the MFC flap in complex foot and ankle pathology., Methods: A retrospective review was completed of all MFC flaps used in the foot and ankle over the past 5 years. Five patients were identified (average age 48). Surgical indications included talar AVN and ankle arthritis, talar nonunion, and navicular AVN. All patients had undergone conventional bone grafting techniques, which failed, prior to being treated with a MFC free flap; this series of patients did not possess significant medical comorbidities. Fixation techniques included compression screw fixation, plate osteosynthesis, or fine wire external fixation. The average follow-up was 20 months (range 8 to 40 months)., Results: There was a 100% flap success rate with no returns to the operating room for thrombosis. The volume of the bone flaps was 5.6 cm(3) (range 1 cm(3) to 12 cm(3)). The average follow-up time was 20 months (range 8 to 40 months). All cases resulted in union, and full weight bearing status was achieved at a mean of 23.8 weeks (range 10 to 52 weeks) postoperatively., Conclusions: Vascularized bone transfer in the form of the MFC free flap was a valuable method for foot and ankle reconstruction. The MFC flap provided an alternative for those defects that were smaller then 3 cm in length. In our experience, for small bone defects requiring vascularized bone, the MFC flap is currently the ideal donor location supplanting the iliac crest., Level of Evidence: Level IV, retrospective case series.

Purpose: Complex lower extremity wounds present a significant challenge to the reconstructive surgeon. We report a consecutive experience of free tissue transfers for lower extremity reconstruction with a focus on outcomes and flap selection., Methods: A retrospective review of all free tissue transfers for lower extremity reconstruction between 2006 and 2011 was performed. Minor complications were defined as nonoperative complications (infection, seroma, hematoma, wound breakdown, and partial loss). Major complication required a surgical intervention (total flap loss, thrombosis, nonunion, amputation, and hematoma)., Results: A total of 119 free flaps were performed in 114 patients. Reconstructed defects were most commonly derived from acute traumatic (N = 40) or chronic traumatic (N = 34) wounds, oncologic (N = 14), or diabetic (N = 8). Flap loss occurred at a rate of 5.9% and the overall lower extremity salvage rate was 93%. Complications were significantly higher for free tissue transfers to the region of the distal tibia (p = 0.04). Major complications were significantly higher in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (p = 0.02) and in patients who experienced intraoperative technical difficulties (p = 0.014). Flap loss was significantly higher when the rectus abdominis flap was used (p = 0.02) and when a delayed venous thrombotic event occurred (p = 0.001)., Conclusion: Patient comorbidities and defect location can be associated with higher rates of complications; flap selection and delayed venous thrombotic events appear to be associated with flap failure.Level of Evidence Prognostic/risk category, level III., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

Background: The management of chronic empyema associated with a bronchopleural fistula can be a particularly challenging problem. Successful eradication may not occur without interposition of healthy vascularized tissue. Pedicled muscle flaps for coverage on the thorax have been well described. However, secondary to trauma or previous surgical procedures, a pedicle flap may not be sufficiently sized or available. Free tissue transfer is an attractive option to provide the appropriate vascularized tissue., Methods: Six patients with chronic empyema-bronchopleural fistulae were reconstructed with 4 rectus abdominis myocutaneous and 2 gracilis muscle flaps. The choice of recipient vessels was dictated by existing local anatomy but included intercostal, thoracodorsal, thoracoacromial, azygous, and circumflex humeral vessels. One flap required interposition saphenous vein grafts for both artery and vein., Results: Patient follow-up ranged from 2 to 14 years. There were no episodes of flap loss or postoperative mortality. Empyema resolution without recurrent bronchopleural fistula was achieved in all patients., Conclusions: Free tissue transfer is an excellent option for vascularized tissue interposition in patients who are not candidates for pedicled muscle transfer. Multiple potential recipient vessels provide tremendous versatility, arguing for early consideration of free tissue transfer., (Copyright © 2011 The Society of Thoracic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Large osseous defects of the upper extremity can be a challenging problem for the reconstructive surgeon. There are numerous treatment options reported in the literature with variable results. We review our experience with the vascularized-fibular osteocutaneous graft for these complex defects with a focus on surgical techniques and outcomes., (Copyright © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)