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The experimental design and gas mixture selection is of great importance in the definition of optimal gas concentrations for use in storage of fresh produce. The aim of this study was to optimise O 2 and CO 2 concentrations under controlled atmosphere conditions to understand the effect on quality and shelf life of 'Shelly' mango fruit stored at 13 °C for 28 d. This was achieved by designing three experimental points (gas compositions = O 2 , CO 2 and N 2) using simplex lattice mixture design to (i) determine single and interaction effects of gas compositions on selected quality parameters and (ii) determine the optimal gas combination in order to maintain quality and prolonging shelf life of 'Shelly' mango fruit. The estimated model parameters coefficients successfully categorised the single and interaction effects of O 2 , CO 2 and N 2 gas compositions. The selected quality attributes experimental data was fitted well using the canonical Scheffe type special cubic model, resulting in coefficient of Determination, R2 = 0.70 to 0.97. The low O 2 and high CO 2 in CA-2 managed to retard ripening and mass loss, and reduce fruit softening and chlorophyll degradation. Positive relationship was observed for linear effect in all quality attributes, while binary and ternary interaction effects varied across all the treatments. The optimal gas compositions for storage of 'Shelly' mango fruit in terms of selected quality attributes ranged between 5 and 8% O 2 + 5–9% CO 2 + 86–91% N 2. The results highlight the potential use of simplex lattice mixture design to optimise CA storage conditions. • Simplex lattice mixture design showed importance of gas selection and optimisation. • Individual and interaction effects of O 2 , CO 2 and N 2 varied with quality attributes. • CO 2 had an significant effect in retaining mass loss, firmness and chlorophyll. • Optimal gas concentrations: 5–8% O 2 ; 5–9% CO 2 ideal for mango storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thyme oil (TO) fumigation (96 μl l −1 ) to cv. Hass and Ryan avocados significantly reduced anthracnose incidence compared to prochloraz and the untreated control. Also, enhanced activities of β-1,3-glucanase, chitinase were noted in both cultivars. TO fumigation induced the expression of both β-1,3-glucanase and chitinase genes in naturally infected fruit of both cultivars, during storage at 7 or 7.5 °C for up to 21 d and during subsequent simulated market shelf conditions at 20 °C for 5 d. However, the impact of TO fumigation on the β-1,3-glucanase gene expression was higher in both cultivars. Higher gene regulation and β-1,3-glucanase, chitinase activities were observed in cv. Ryan compared to Hass. Although TO fumigation significantly reduced anthracnose incidence in both naturally infected cultivars, the inhibitory effect was slightly higher in cv. Ryan than Hass. Thus, postharvest TO fumigation had positive effects on enhancing anthracnose disease resistance during storage and also gave a residual effect during the simulated shelf life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Postharvest diseases are one of the major causes for the postharvest loss of horticultural fresh produce during the supply chain. The incidence of postharvest diseases can affect the quality and restrict the shelf life of the horticultural fresh produce. At present strict regulations are enforced by the fresh produce importing countries regarding the minimum pesticide residue levels in the edible portion of the fresh produce. Some fungal pathogens were reported to develop resistance to synthetic fungicides. Waste disposal of fungicides has an impact on environmental footprint. All theses above-mentioned reasons have necessitated the search for a natural novel fungicide to replace the synthetic fungicide application in the packing line as postharvest treatment. Consumer preference to organic fresh produce is increasingly becoming popular in the developed countries. Therefore, this review summarises the use of essential oils in the control of postharvest diseases of horticultural commodities, their mode of actions, effects on the defence mechanism and quality of fresh fruit. Future research must be focused on conducting large scale trials to prove the feasibility of combination treatments. The cost benefit analysis of the treatments needs to be carried out in order to implement their application and the commercial applications of essential oils and host pathogen infection must be investigated in detail in order to control latent infections during postharvest storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avocados are a popular subtropical fruit of high economic importance, and the European Union is the biggest importer of the bulk of the fruit coming from countries such as South Africa, Chile, and Israel. The fruit is highly nutritious, being rich in vitamins A, B, C, minerals, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, and antioxidants. The biggest challenge is that the fruit is highly susceptible to qualitative and quantitative postharvest losses. Successful maintenance of avocado fruit quality during the supply chain depends on many aspects, including adequate orchard management practices, harvesting practices, packing operations, postharvest treatments, temperature management, transportation and storage conditions, and ripening at destination. Postharvest losses are mostly attributed to flesh softening, decay, physiological disorders, and improper temperature management. Management of the supply chain is solely done to provide the fruit with the most favorable conditions to extend storage life, and retain quality and nutritional attributes of the fruit. The focus of this review is therefore to study the findings that have emanated from research done to retain overall avocado fruit quality and to reduce postharvest losses during the supply chain through the adoption of appropriate and novel postharvest technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mango cultivars Tommy Atkins, Zill, Peach, Sabre, Rosa and Phiva were analyzed for their quality parameters (fruit weight, flesh color chroma, L, h 0, total soluble solid [ TSS]/titratable acidity [ TA], firmness), bioactive compounds (total phenols, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, antioxidant activity) and polyphenol oxidase ( PPO) activity. Cv. Sabre showed highest total phenolic content (76.43 mg gallic acid/100 g FW), carotenoids (9.90 mg/100 g of FW), ascorbic acid content (69.71 mg/100 g of FW) and antioxidant activity (1.2 mg of gallic acid/g of FW), whereas cv. Peach mango contained lower bioactive compounds. Multivariate principal component analysis analysis showed higher concentration of bioactive compounds in cv. Sabre mango, whereas cv. Tommy Atkins was firm and heavier. Cv. Rosa and Phiva were moderately rich in bioactive compounds and lower in fruit weight and firmness, whereas cv. Peach was higher in TSS/ TA. The PPO activity was higher in cvs. Rosa and Zill. Practical Applications The variability in the quality parameters and bioactive components in five different mango cultivars was investigated. The results of this study provide valuable information to growers, distributors and consumers in selecting cultivars that are rich in bioactive components to consume as fresh fruit. Different cultivars were also identified for specific processing operations based on their quality parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Bioactive compounds and fruit quality parameters varied among the tomato cultivars. [•] Photo-selective nettings improved the overall quality of tomato fruits. [•] Marketable yield was higher in cv. AlfaV tomato under pearl photo-selective nets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Postharvest application of prochloraz fungicide is commercially practiced to control anthracnose, a postharvest disease in avocado. Increasing consumer concern regarding food safety and demand for organically produced fruits make it necessary to search for natural environmentally friendly alternative products and processes for the fruit industry. RESULTS A combination of modified atmosphere packaging ( MAP; ∼8% CO2, 2% O2) plus thyme oil ( TO) was evaluated on the incidence and severity of anthracnose, physiological disorders (grey pulp, vascular browning), fruit quality parameters ( L*, h°, firmness, weight loss) and sensory parameters (taste, texture, flavour and overall acceptance), phenylalanine ammonia-lyase ( PAL) enzyme activity, total phenolic compounds, flavonoid contents and antioxidant activity in avocados ('Fuerte' and 'Hass' cultivars) held at 10 °C cold storage for 18 days and thereafter, ripened at 25 °C for 5-10 days. Stand-alone MAP, commercial treatment (prochloraz 0.05%) and untreated (control) fruit were included for comparison. MAP + TO treatment significantly ( P < 0.05) reduced the incidence and severity of anthracnose, grey pulp, vascular browning, weight loss and loss of fruit firmness, and showed acceptable taste, flavour, texture and higher overall acceptance, increased PAL activity, total phenolic compounds, flavonoid contents and antioxidant activity, after ripening at 25 °C followed by cold storage at 10 °C. CONCLUSION This investigation recommends MAP + TO combination treatment as a suitable alternative to the currently adopted prochloraz application. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Postharvest decay and insect infestation are two major causes that contribute towards higher postlian'est losses during the fresh pivduce supply chain. Although decay and pest infestation could be controlled successfully via pesticide applications, the use of chemicals at the posthar\>est stage is becoming limited due to the strict regulations regarding pesticide residue levels enforced by importing countries. Heat treatments are environmentally friendly and recommended as alternative treatments to replace pes-ticide applications, especially with regard to fresh produce. These treatments help to eradicate pathogens or pests that are present on the fruit surface while maintaining the overall quality of the fresh produce during the supply chain. Browning is regarded as an economically important physiological disorder that causes detrimental effects on the quality maintenance offresh-cut produce. Contamination of fresh produce by foodborne pathogens could occur at any stage during the production, harvesting, postharvest chain, or processing, and heat treatments could be recommended as an antibrowning or disinfection treatment for the fresli-cut industry. In light of the above, this review summa-rizes the effects of postharvest heat treatments on postharvest decay, insect infestation, physiological disorders, fruit ripening, retention of color, and bioactive compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Due to their flavor and nutritional characteristics, papaya fruit are consumed worldwide. As a tropical commodity, storage has serious limitations that result in their rapid deterioration and high incidence of rots during handling and storage. Postharvest handling of papaya differs according to destination. For export markets, there are well-defined postharvest steps established that include technologies that generally avoid disease incidence. For national markets, the postharvest chain is short but characterized by poor handling practices that can result in serious losses due to microorganisms. Anthracnose is considered the main postharvest disease, but development of other rots may also limit good fruit quality, as is the case with, among others, stem-end rots. Control of papaya rots for export markets are applied in accordance with import–export regulations, while for the national market it has typically relied on synthetic fungicides; however, due to their already known ‘side-effects’ on humans and the environment, other alternatives alone or combined should be tested in integrated technologies. We reviewed the available literature on different control methods to reduce postharvest diseases during papaya storage, including those that reported on their effects on fruit quality. Wax combined with fungicides and heat is currently in use. Other methods, such as the application of irradiation, antagonistic microorganisms and natural compounds [e.g. chitosan and plant derivatives (extracts, essential oils and isothiocynates)], are still under evaluation, but have yielded promising initial results. The application of various organic salts and minerals and modified and controlled atmosphere technologies using ozone and volatiles such as 1-methycyclopropane are also under experimentation. We believe that research areas that include preharvest experimentation aimed at reducing postharvest diseases on papaya fruit should be taken into account. Finally, the integration of more than one control method will reduce the incidence of rots, and therefore improve and extend the storage life of this important commodity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Papayas are popular in tropical and subtropical regions and are being exported in large volumes to Europe, the United States, and Japan. The fruit has a sweet, exotic flavor and is rich in vitamins A and C and antioxidants. However, due to its highly perishable nature, it has not emerged as a major traded fruit. Papayas are highly susceptible to qualitative and quantitative postharvest losses. Maintenance of papaya fruit quality during the supply chain depends on orchard management, harvesting practices, packing operations, postharvest treatments, temperature management, and transportation and storage conditions. Postharvest losses are attributed to mechanical damage, rapid flesh softening, decay, physiological disorders, pest infestation, and improper temperature management. The aim of postharvest technology and management in the supply chain is to provide favorable conditions to extend storage life and retain quality and nutritional attributes. This review focuses on the available research findings to retain overall papaya fruit quality and to reduce postharvest losses during the supply chain via adopting appropriate or novel postharvest technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Mangoes are tropical/sub tropical fruit with a highly significant economic importance. Preferable quality attributes include freedom from external damages such as bruises, latex or sap injury and decay, uniform weight, colour, aroma, firmness (with little give away, not soft), shape and size. The fruit is rich in antioxidants and recommended to be included in the daily diet due to its health benefits such as reduced risk of cardiac disease, anti cancer, and anti viral activities. Maintenance of mango fruit quality during the supply chain depends on many aspects including adequate orchard management practices, harvesting practices, packing operation, postharvest treatments, temperature management, transportation and storage conditions, and ripening at destination. Postharvest losses are high during the supply chain due to harvesting fruit at improper maturity, mechanical damage during the whole chain, sap burn, spongy tissue, lenticels discolouration, fruit softening, decay, chilling injury, and disease and pest damage. The aim of postharvest treatments and management practices in the supply chain is to create suitable conditions or environments to extend the storage life and retain the quality attributes, nutritional and functional compositions. This review summarises the available research findings to retain the overall mango fruit quality and to reduce postharvest losses during supply chain by adopting suitable postharvest novel technologies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Changes in aroma volatiles and sensory attributes with respect to litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) fruit subjected to SO2 fumigation, dilute HCl (pH 0.9–1) dip after SO2 fumigation, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (17% O2 +6% CO2) and controlled atmosphere (CA) conditions (CA-1, 3% O2 +7% CO2) at 2°C, 90% RH for 21d were investigated. Citronellol and geraniol are responsible for the fruity, floral, rose and citrus aroma in ‘Mauritius’ litchi fruit. Different postharvest treatments affected the retention of citronellol and geraniol content during storage as follows: MAP (17% O2 +6% CO2)>CA (3% O2 +7% CO2)>SO2 >SO2–HCl dip. A trained panel described woody (alloaromadendrene), spicy (ar-curcumene) and ‘wine’ (ethanol) notes most strongly in SO2-fumigated or SO2 +HCl dipped fruit. The untrained panel preferred the fruit in MAP and disliked commercially SO2-fumigated or SO2 +HCl dipped fruit. The MAP packed fruit showed absence of decay and reduced pericarp browning with acceptable marketability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of 1-MCP pre-treatment and two different controlled atmosphere storage conditions (CA-1, 17% O2 +6% CO2; CA-2, 7% O2 +3% CO2) on fruit quality parameters and physiological changes with respect to pericarp browning in ‘McLean''s Red’ litchi were investigated. Fruits were pre-treated with 1-MCP (500nl/l) and held at CA-1 or CA-2 for 21d at 2°C and at 90% RH. Stand-alone CA-1 or stand-alone CA-2 and the commercially adopted sulphur dioxide (SO2) treatment were included in this study for comparison. Of the five treatments 1-MCP+CA-1 was most effective in preventing browning, loss of red colour (colour value a*) of the pericarp, ascorbic acid content; and retaining acceptable SSC/TA and taste. Fruit from 1-MCP+CA-1 showed higher overall acceptance after 21d storage without any off-flavour according to the sensory panel data.1-MCP+CA-1 reduced the polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) activity, retained membrane integrity and anthocyanin content during storage. Although SO2 treatment prevents browning it showed negative effects on SSC/TA, taste and membrane integrity. Stand-alone CA-2 condition indicated higher pericarp browning, PPO, POD activity and loss of membrane integrity. Therefore, 1-MCP pre-treatment and CA-1 retains overall fruit quality for up to 21d. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) 'Mauritius' is a popular export cultivar due to its attractive red color and excellent fruit quality. Three orchards were selected based on planting distance and routine pruning practices followed by each growing season. Orchards A and B are essentially similar regarding these production practices, whereas orchard C had overlapping canopies due to lack of routine pruning practices after each growing season and short planting distance. Canonical variate analysis was used as a statistical tool to compare fruit quality attributes from different orchards (A, B, and C) in terms of physical, chemical and sensory parameters and correlating to leaf nutrient status. The correlations and plot of loadings of the variates indicated that skin color (visual), color values (chroma and hue angle, h°), fruit weight, firmness, and consumer acceptability were the main factors that discriminated orchard C from the other two orchards. The soluble solids concentrations, titratable acidity and fruit taste were the quality attributes discriminating orchard A from orchard B. The relationship between the leaf nutrients and fruit quality attributes showed positive relationships between leaf potassium (K) and anthocyanin content and titratable acidity (TA); leaf phosphorus (P) and pericarp h°, leaf nitrogen (N) and fruit weight; leaf calcium (Ca) and fruit firmness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The efficacy of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), Xtend® (XF) or biorientated polypropylene (BOPP), and hot water dip treatments on quality retention in the litchi cultivar ‘McLean's Red’ was evaluated as an alternative to SO2-fumigation. Fruits were dipped in hot water at different temperatures and time regimes [50°C × 2 min; 55°C × 1 min; or 60°C × 1 s] and packed in XF or in BOPP. The XF bags were closed with rubber bands, while the BOPP bags were heat-sealed to modify the atmosphere around the fruit. Packed fruits were placed in commercial cardboard cartons and stored at 2°C and 95% RH for 34 d to simulate commercial export conditions. Commercial SO2-fumigation, and fruit without any hot water dip treatment packed in XF or BOPP were included as controls. Weight loss, firmness, pericarp browning, severity of decay, Hunter colour values, titratable acidity, fruit pH and soluble solids concentrations were determined after storage. Sensory analysis was carried out to determine colour retention of the pericarp and aril, flavour qualities, taste, odour, juiciness and overall consumer acceptability. Fruit packed in BOPP showed reduced weight loss, colour deterioration and decay, and retained excellent eating quality during long-term storage due to the high RH and higher O2 concentrations (17%) around the fruit. Hot water dip treatments at 50°C for 2 min, or at 55°C for 1 min, caused deleterious effects on pericarp colour, surface structure and quality parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Avocado cv. 'Ryan' had lower anthracnose incidence, highest concentration of D-mannoheptulose, took longer to ripen. • Heterogeneity in untargeted metabolites were noted in cv. 'Ryan' during chemometric analysis. • cv. 'Ryan' showed the highest content of total fatty acid and epicatechin content at ready to eat stage. • Different growing seasons affected the untargeted metabolites in cv. Hass. The aim of this study was to relate the untargeted and targeted metabolites to the number of days taken to reach 'ready-to-eat stage' ripeness based on firmness and incidence of anthracnose in five avocado cultivars ('Hass,' 'Lamb Hass,' 'Pinkerton,' 'Fuerte,' and 'Ryan') harvested at different growing seasons (early, mid and late season). Cultivar 'Ryan,' harvested at early and mid-seasons, took longer (7 days) to ripen and showed the lowest incidence of anthracnose, whilst cv. 'Fuerte' ripened faster (4 days) and showed the highest incidence of anthracnose. UPLC-MS, together with principal component analysis, demonstrated clear groupings of the samples according to their cultivars. Major heterogeneity in the untargeted metabolome profile was observed in cv. 'Ryan.' Supervised Orthogonal Projections to Latent Structures Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA) approach showed a unique biomarker ([M−H]−_ 17.48 at m/z 331.23 (Laricitrin) separated cv. 'Ryan' from the other cultivars. Different growing seasons of cv. 'Hass' were separated based on unidentified markers [early ([M−H]−_17.62 at m/z 420.31), mid ([M−H]−_18.48 at m/z 325.18) and late ([M−H]−_9.90 at m/z 329.23)]. Targeted metabolites including C 7 D- mannoheptulose, skin epicatechin, ferulic, p-coumaric, chlorogenic, caffeic, (-)- L -chicoric, caftaric, palmitic (16:0), oleic (18:1) and linoleic (18:2) acids contents and antioxidant activities were highest in cv. 'Ryan' at ready-to-eat stage irrespective of the seasons. Thus, cv. 'Ryan' could be a useful candidate for the avocado oil industry due to its higher fatty acid composition. The higher concentration of unsaturated fatty acids and C 7 D- mannoheptulose at ready-to-eat stage in cv. 'Ryan' avocados provides health benefits. The observed reduction in anthracnose decay in cv. Ryan avocados was attributed to the higher concentration of epicatechin in the skin and the pool of phenolic metabolites in the mesocarp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing postharvest management techniques using environmentally friendly and non-chemical approaches is key to extending the shelf life of avocados in a safer and health conscious manner. Avocados are prone to postharvest deterioration caused by mechanical damage, chilling injury, soft landing, uneven ripening and decay. Among the different cultivars of avocados commercially grown worldwide, the 'Hass' variety continues to be the most predominant due to its nutty flavour and functional properties. Most of the literature on postharvest decay and disorders affecting avocado fruit quality during storage and marketing is dedicated to the Hass avocado. Some of these postharvest problems are unique to the 'Hass' avocado can possibly be controlled by simply investing more research into other cultivars. These postharvest losses can be significantly controlled using eco-friendly technologies, such as modified atmosphere, physical heat treatments and most importantly investing in natural biodegradable products with naturally inherent antimicrobial properties. Thus, this review includes the recent research-based information on the use of non-chemical treatments on the improvement of fruit health and quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Stem-end rot and anthracnose in avocado were controlled by chitosan at 1.5%. • Chitosan was effective both on artificial and natural infections. • Chitosan induced the up-regulation of CHI gene. • Chitosan up-regulated PAL gene and increased epicatechin content. • Down-regulation of LOX gene was noted in fruit dipped in 1.5% chitosan. Abstract Stem-end rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) are major postharvest diseases in avocado that cause severe postharvest losses throughout the supply chain. One of the strategies to reduce development of such decay agents resides in the application of resistance inducers (e.g. chitosan), capable of reducing fungal growth and inducing resistance in fruit tissues. The influence of chitosan treatment (1% or 1.5% w/v) was investigated on decay incidence, gene expression of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), chitinase (CHI) and lipoxygenase (LOX) and antioxidant enzyme activity [superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)] in i) drop-inoculated (without wounding) or ii) artificially infected (with wounding) avocado (cv. 'Hass') with L. theobromae or C. gloeosporioides pathogens and also in iii) naturally infected (natural inoculum) avocado. Fruit were dipped in 1% or 1.5% w/v chitosan dissolved in water for 3 min, followed by storage for 14 d and 28 d respectively at 7.5 °C, and thereafter for 5 d at 18 °C to simulate market shelf conditions. Chitosan at 1.5% significantly reduced the incidence of stem-end rot and anthracnose in both inoculated and naturally infected avocados. The up-regulation of PAL and down-regulation of LOX genes moderately allowed higher epicatechin contents (90 mg kg−1 FW) in the exocarp, which could have contributed to improved anthracnose control. The up-regulation of CHI genes and higher SOD activity could have contributed to control of stem-end rot. Chitosan solution (1.5%) retained moderate levels of C7 sugars and firmness up to 5 d shelf life. The control of stem-end rot and anthracnose of avocados obtained with 1.5% chitosan can be ascribed to a combination of its antifungal and eliciting properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Mango fruit consumption is an affordable strategy to alleviate vitamin A deficiency. • Proper postharvest technologies could enhance marketability and quality of mangoes. • Affordable non-destructive methods could contribute to reduction in postharvest losses. Abstract Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a commercial fruit crop produced in tropical, subtropical regions in the world. It is widely consumed due to the delicious flavour, pleasant aroma, and rich source of nutrients and phytochemicals (vitamin C, Vitamin E, β- carotene, lutein, quercetin, mangiferin, omega 3 and 6 polyunsaturated fatty acids etc.). Deficiency of β- carotene which is a precursor for the biosynthesis of vitamin A is a major challenge faced by Sub-Saharan African countries. Therefore, mango consumption could relatively be an affordable strategy to supply β- carotene to alleviate the vitamin A deficiency in the Sub Saharan Africa. However, fruit shelf life is limited due to high respiration rate, ethylene production and excessive ripening, pests, diseases cumulatively resulting in postharvest loss of valuable nutrients and decline in market value. Furthermore, rejection by consumer of fresh mangoes is attributed to improper fruit maturity, mechanical damage caused during harvesting or field handling. The fruit marketability is closely linked with the development of suitable technology which reduces the losses at different stages of harvesting and storage conditions. Instruments for monitoring and predicting the fruit quality have been introduced recently. This review presents an overview of fruit physiological changes, postharvest quality and non-destructive assessment criteria during mango supply chain. Furthermore, the application of current postharvest technologies, capturing (low cost storage structures, low temperature, modified atmosphere storage, anti-ripening treatments and hot water treatment) and its implications on mango fruit nutritional quality are pointed out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]