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Fungi are among the most diverse and ecologically important kingdoms in life. However, the distributional ranges of fungi remain largely unknown as do the ecological mechanisms that shape their distributions 1,2 . To provide an integrated view of the spatial and seasonal dynamics of fungi, we implemented a globally distributed standardized aerial sampling of fungal spores 3 . The vast majority of operational taxonomic units were detected within only one climatic zone, and the spatiotemporal patterns of species richness and community composition were mostly explained by annual mean air temperature. Tropical regions hosted the highest fungal diversity except for lichenized, ericoid mycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal fungi, which reached their peak diversity in temperate regions. The sensitivity in climatic responses was associated with phylogenetic relatedness, suggesting that large-scale distributions of some fungal groups are partially constrained by their ancestral niche. There was a strong phylogenetic signal in seasonal sensitivity, suggesting that some groups of fungi have retained their ancestral trait of sporulating for only a short period. Overall, our results show that the hyperdiverse kingdom of fungi follows globally highly predictable spatial and temporal dynamics, with seasonality in both species richness and community composition increasing with latitude. Our study reports patterns resembling those described for other major groups of organisms, thus making a major contribution to the long-standing debate on whether organisms with a microbial lifestyle follow the global biodiversity paradigms known for macroorganisms 4,5 ., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Novel methods for sampling and characterizing biodiversity hold great promise for re-evaluating patterns of life across the planet. The sampling of airborne spores with a cyclone sampler, and the sequencing of their DNA, have been suggested as an efficient and well-calibrated tool for surveying fungal diversity across various environments. Here we present data originating from the Global Spore Sampling Project, comprising 2,768 samples collected during two years at 47 outdoor locations across the world. Each sample represents fungal DNA extracted from 24 m3 of air. We applied a conservative bioinformatics pipeline that filtered out sequences that did not show strong evidence of representing a fungal species. The pipeline yielded 27,954 species-level operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Each OTU is accompanied by a probabilistic taxonomic classification, validated through comparison with expert evaluations. To examine the potential of the data for ecological analyses, we partitioned the variation in species distributions into spatial and seasonal components, showing a strong effect of the annual mean temperature on community composition.

Polyporous fungi, a morphologically delineated group of Agaricomycetes (Basidiomycota), are considered well studied in Europe and used as model group in ecological studies and for conservation. Such broad interest, including widespread sampling and DNA based taxonomic revisions, is rapidly transforming our basic understanding of polypore diversity and natural history. We integrated over 40,000 historical and modern records of polypores in Estonia (hemiboreal Europe), revealing 227 species, and including Polyporus submelanopus and P. ulleungus as novelties for Europe. Taxonomic and conservation problems were distinguished for 13 unresolved subgroups. The estimated species pool exceeds 260 species in Estonia, including at least 20 likely undescribed species (here documented as distinct DNA lineages related to accepted species in, e.g., Ceriporia, Coltricia, Physisporinus, Sidera and Sistotrema). Four broad ecological patterns are described: (1) polypore assemblage organization in natural forests follows major soil and tree-composition gradients; (2) landscape-scale polypore diversity homogenizes due to draining of peatland forests and reduction of nemoral broad-leaved trees (wooded meadows and parks buffer the latter); (3) species having parasitic or brown-rot life-strategies are more substratespecific; and (4) assemblage differences among woody substrates reveal habitat management priorities. Our update reveals extensive overlap of polypore biota throughout North Europe. We estimate that in Estonia, the biota experienced ca. 3-5% species turnover during the twentieth century, but exotic species remain rare and have not attained key functions in natural ecosystems. We encourage new regional syntheses on long studied fungal groups to obtain landscape-scale understanding of species pools, and for elaborating fungal indicators for biodiversity assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In regions where primeval forests have vanished it is unclear whether forest protection can sustain specialized old-forest biota, and over what time scale. We report on population expansion of an old-growth specific fungus of European conservation concern, Amylocystis lapponica, in the forest reserve network of Estonia. This conspicuous species was known for 40 years from only single records in one old-growth forest and was categorized nationally as Critically Endangered. During the last 10 years A. lapponica has expanded over the eastern half of the country, with nine subpopulations, in 12 localities, now known, all in long-protected old-growth forests and several > 50 km apart. In most of the new localities historical absence of the species can be reliably assessed based on earlier surveys. The historical remnant subpopulation has also increased. The population size (c. 100 mature individuals) in Estonia indicates the species should be recategorized nationally as Endangered. This success story suggests that more than 50 years of non-intervention may be needed even in large old-forest reserves for old-growth specialist species to recover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Restoring peatland ecosystems involves significant uncertainty due to complex ecological and socio-economic feedbacks as well as alternative stable ecological states. The primary aim of this study was to investigate to what extent the natural functioning of drainage-affected peat soils can be restored, and to examine role of soil microbiota in this recovery process. To address these questions, a large-scale before-after-control-impact (BACI) experiment was conducted in drained peatland forests in Estonia. The restoration treatments included ditch closure and partial tree cutting to raise the water table and restore stand structure. Soil samples and environmental data were collected before and 3–4 years after the treatments; the samples were subjected to metabarcoding to assess fungal and bacterial communities and analysed for their chemical properties. The study revealed some indicators of a shift toward the reference state (natural mixotrophic bog-forests): the spatial heterogeneity in soil fungi and bacteria increased, as well as the relative abundance of saprotrophic fungi; while nitrogen content in the soil decreased significantly. However, a general stability of other physico-chemical properties (including pH remaining elevated by ca. one unit) and annual fluctuations in the microbiome suggested that soil recovery will remain incomplete and patchy for decades. The main implication is the necessity to manage hydrologically restored peatland forests while explicitly considering an uncertain future and diverse outcomes. This includes their continuous monitoring and the adoption of a precautionary approach to prevent further damage both to these ecosystems and to surrounding intact peatlands. [Display omitted] • Can ditch filling and forest thinning reverse drainage-caused change in peat soils? • Soil chemistry and microbiome investigated in BACI experiment across five years. • Increased microbial heterogeneity indicated recovery towards reference state. • Resistance of soil physico-chemical properties indicated uncertain future state. • Consideration of alternative outcomes needed in peatland restoration planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most known brown rot–producing species of Polyporales belong to the so-called "Antrodia clade" that largely consists of poroid species. In this study, we use three genetic markers to revise Antrodia s. str., the core group of this clade. We show that a corticioid species with a smooth hymenophore, Phlebia griseoflavescens, belongs to Antrodia s. str. Accordingly, we revise the generic concept of Antrodia s. str. to accommodate this species and two recently described poroid taxa, A. tenerifensis and A. multiformis. In addition, we describe two new poroid species within Antrodia s. str., A. latebrosa from Africa and A. peregrina from East Asia, and provide new documentation for the Southeast Asian species A. parvula based on recent collections from the type location. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental managers often use indicator taxa to monitor full biodiversity and hidden environmental factors. For identifying practical indicators from assemblage data collected in the field, it is crucial to remove irrelevant variation, which unfortunately is not a common practice. We demonstrate, based on field data from Estonian forests, (i) how an attractive indicator group of macrofungi, perennial polypores, loses its apparent indicator value when variation in study effort and conspicuous environmental factors have been reduced; (ii) that simply including survey effort variation is sufficient to create significant covariation between species richness of taxon groups, which has often been taken as a justification for indicator assignment. These results imply that standardizing study effort should become a requirement for any field study that reports indicator taxa based on covariance patterns. We encourage researchers to be explicit and critical about the practical value of indicator taxa when compared with direct measurement of habitat conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The expanding practice of live-tree retention on clear-cuts represents a model case for conservation planning, because the high mortality of those trees requires balancing conflicting management goals in unpredictable conditions over long time frames. We explored the habitat provisioning function of dying retention trees for polypore and epixylic lichen assemblages. We sampled fallen trunks and snags created by known retention-tree deaths during the first post-harvest decade on 46 cut areas in Estonia, hemiboreal Europe. Those trees (particularly large fallen aspens) hosted a species-rich polypore assemblage that included several species of conservation concern. Lichen colonization of wood was slower and most species were found on pine snags. At the tree scale, the total species richness was highest on the trees that had died by trunk breakage creating both a snag and a log. To represent all species at the cutover scale, equal retention of different tree species and dead-wood types was sufficient for common species, but selective retention appeared necessary for species of conservation concern. The most frequent polypore species of conservation concern were either characteristic of specific substrates (notably aspen trunks) or early-successional stand conditions. We conclude that (i) dying retention trees are unlikely to provide dead-wood continuity at the stand scale and this function should be assessed at the landscape scale; (ii) effective habitat provisioning should include predicting and affecting the causes of tree death and linked management decisions based on the diversity, size, and longevity of the trees in specific landscape contexts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]