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Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn (Asteraceae) is a valuable medicinal plant utilized for silymarin production. However, only fragmentary and contradictory information about silymarin localization within S. marianum fruit are available. In this work, a twofold research approach was adopted in order to investigate the distribution and quantification of silymarin and of other phenolic compounds within the different fruit regions (pericarp, seed integument, cotyledon). Two S. marianum wild accessions with contrasting silymarin chemotype (A and B) and a mutant line (C) with an altered fruit colour were analysed. Fruits of Cynara cardunculus were studied as a reference. Firstly, the fruit morpho-anatomy was reviewed by means of light microscopy digital imaging and, secondly, a comprehensive histolocalization of the different classes of polyphenols within the fruit was carried out. The experimental evidences confirmed that silymarin, and its precursor taxifolin, are only accumulated in the seed integuments. The dark colour of fully-ripened fruits is due to the accumulation of condensed tannins in the pericarp subepidermal cell layer. On the contrary, the studied mutant line shows reduced condensed tannin content that probably result from impairment at the level of flavonoid biosynthetic pathway. Condensed tannins content is comparatively low in S. marianum fruits and very low in the identified mutant line. This could represent an advantage for the possible employment of S. marianum fruits and of silymarin extraction by-products in the feed and food sector.

Stachys annua subsp. annua, well-known in central Italy as 'stregona annuale', is an annual, small, slightly-scented herb, commonly found in fields and uncultivated areas in almost all regions of Italy. In folk medicine, its aerial parts were used as anti-catarrhal, febrifuge, tonic, and vulnerary. In the present work, the chemical composition of the flowering aerial parts was studied. The hydrodistilled volatile oil, analysed by GC/MS, showed sesquiterpenoids as the major fraction (42.5%); phytol (9.8%), germacrene D (9.2%), and spathulenol (8.5%) were the most abundant constituents. The volatile oil was assayed for antioxidant and cytotoxic activity by DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and MTT methods. The cytotoxicity results against HCT116, A375, and MDA-MB 231 human tumor cell lines were significant, with IC50 values of 23.5, 37.2, and 41.5 μg/ml, respectively, whereas the antioxidant power was negligible. The EtOH extract was composed mainly of three glycosidic flavonoids, namely 7-{[2-O-(6-O-acetyl-β-D-allopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]oxy}-5,8-dihydroxy-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (1), 7-{[6-O-acetyl-2-O-(6-O-acetyl-β-D-allopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]oxy}-2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-5,8-dihydroxy-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (2), and 7-{[6-O-acetyl-2-O-(β-D-allopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranosyl]oxy}-2-(3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl)-5,8-dihydroxy-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (3). On the contrary, iridoids, considered chemotaxonomic markers of the genus Stachys, were absent in this species. Finally, the morphological and histochemical survey showed that glandular trichomes were composed of two main types, i.e. peltate type A and capitate types B and C giving positive response for both lipids and polyphenols.

Sideritis italica (Mill.) Greuter et Burdet belongs to the Lamiaceae family and is endemic to Italy. The glandular trichomes (morphology, distribution, histochemistry, and ultrastructure) of the plant were studied for the first time, along with the chemical composition of the essential oils. Abundant non-glandular hairs and peltate (type A) and capitate (types B, C(1), and C(x)) glandular trichomes were observed both on the vegetative and reproductive organs. The histochemical procedures and the ultrastructural investigation enabled specific location of the main site of essential oil production mainly in type-A peltate hairs. Particular emphasis is given to the release mechanism of the secreted material in all of the types of glands, and the potential taxonomic value of the indumentum in the Lamiaceae family is briefly discussed. Essential oils were hydrodistilled from flowering aerial parts of S. italica, and 136 compounds (112 in flowerheads, 79 in vegetative parts) were identified. The quantitative prevalence of diterpenoids (43.4% in flowerheads and 22.3% in vegetative parts) was the most significant characteristic of the essential oil of S. italica that could be classified as a diterpene-rich essential oil according to the classification of Kirimer.

Stachys tymphaea (Lamiaceae) is a perennial herb growing in forest openings and dry meadows of central and southern Italy. It was investigated for the first time here, determining the content of secondary metabolites, the micromorphology of glandular trichomes, the histochemical localization of secretion, and the biological activity of the volatile oil, namely, the cytotoxic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. The plant showed a peculiar molecular pattern, being rich of biophenolic compounds as flavonoids, phenylethanoid glycosides, and caffeoylquinic acid derivatives, but poor of iridoids, which are known as marker compounds of the genus Stachys. The essential oil was characterized by GC-FID and GC/MS analyses, revealing a high percentage of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (54.6%), with germacrene D (30.0%) and (E)-β-farnesene (12.4%) as the most abundant compounds, while other main components were representatives of the diterpenes (19.2%), represented mainly by (E)-phytol (11.9%). This composition supported the taxonomic relationships in the genus Stachys, which comprises oil-poor species producing essential oils rich in hydrocarbons, with germacrene D as one of the predominant components. The micromorphological study revealed three types of glandular hairs, i.e., Type A peltate trichomes, being the primary sites of essential oil biosynthesis, Type B short-stalked trichomes, typical mucopolysaccharide producers, and Type C long capitate trichomes, secreting a complex mixture of both lipophilic and hydrophilic substances, with a major phenolic fraction. Moreover, the MTT assay revealed the potential of the volatile oil to inhibit A375, HCT116, and MDA-MB 231 tumor cells lines (IC50 values of 23.9-34.4 μg/ml).

Stachys alopecuros subsp. divulsa (Lamiaceae), a perennial herb endemic to central Italy growing on mountain pastures, was investigated for the first time for the content of secondary metabolites, for the micromorphology and histochemistry of glandular trichomes, and for the biological activity of the volatile oil, namely cytotoxic, antioxidant and antimicrobial. The plant showed the molecular pattern of iridoids, among which a new iridoid diglycoside (4′- O -β- d -galactopyranosyl-teuhircoside) was detected, together with a sterol glucoside and a phenylethanoid glycoside. The essential oil from the flowering aerial parts was characterized by a high proportion of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (65.1%), with ( E )-caryophyllene (33.2%) as the most abundant, while other main components were germacrene D (7.6%), α-humulene (6.4%) and the oxygenated cis -sesquisabinene hydrate (10.2%). Taken together, polar and apolar chemical profiles support the classification of the species within the section Betonica of the genus Stachys . Micromorphological study revealed three types of glandular hairs secreting different classes of compounds, with type A peltate hairs producing the bulk of the essential oil. MTT assay revealed the potential of the volatile oil in inhibiting A375, HCT116 and MDA-MB 231 tumor cells (IC 50 values below 20 μg/ml).

Hypericum androsaemum L. presents typical translucent, essential oil producing glands, which are distributed on the leaf along both margins (margin glands) and on the lamina (lamina glands). The gland secretion was studied by histochemical and chemical analysis; the gland content was sampled directly from the secretory glands, and the volatile organic compounds (VOC) of the margin and lamina glands were separately analyzed. The lipophilic fraction of the lamina glands had as main components: (E)-2-hexenal (15.5%), hexadecanoic acid (14.7%), β-caryophyllene (11.2%), germacrene B (11.0%) and γ-himachalene (9.8%). The lipophilic fraction of the margin glands had as its main components: β-pinene (22.0%), limonene (17.6%), (E)-β-ocimene (6.1%), methyl linoleate (5.7%), terpinolene (5.4 %), (E)-2-hexenal (4.9%) and α-pinene (4.1%).

The essential oils from both leaves (L) and flowers (F) of Stachys germanica subsp. salviifolia (Ten.) Gams (Labiatae/Lamiaceae) from Italy were analyzed by GC-MS for the first time. The distribution, morphology and histochemistry of the different types of glandular trichomes present on the epidermal surface were also determined. Twenty-nine constituents, representing 89.4% of the total leaf oil, and forty-one compounds, forming 97.8% of the total flower oil, were identified. Germacrene D (39.4%), phytol (10.2%), β-bourbonene (3.5%) and β-ylangene (3.3%) were recognized as the main constituents of the leaf essential oil, while limonene (24.1%), β-pinene (18.7%), germacrene D (12.8%) and ( E)-nerolidol (6.6%) were the main compounds of the flower essential oil.

Prasium majus L. (Labiatae, Lamioideae) is considered a typical non-aromatic plant. In this work we examined the glandular trichomes present on leaves and inflorescences and the essential oils of plants growing along the Tuscan coast of Italy. The micromorphological study evidenced different types of trichomes responsible for the essential oil production. The essential oil compositions of leaves and flowers were analyzed by GC/MS and are here reported.

In an era such as the present one in which there is a high demand for health services with the associated pressure of controlling spending, health care organizations are concerned about the cost-effectiveness of quality improvement interventions. On the other hand, the impact of the disease and the treatment on the patient's overall well-being and functioning has become a topic of growing interest not only in clinical research but also in practice. The clinical evaluation of the benefits of specific treatments for chronic, debilitating and incurable diseases should increasingly include formal assessment of patient activity and well-being. Thus, health-related quality of life as subjectively perceived by the patient, is becoming a major issue in the evaluation of any therapeutic intervention, mainly in patients with chronic or difficult diseases where the aim of the intervention is to keep patients either symptom-free and capable of living in the community for a long time or to reduce the discomfort caused by the disease. In this paper, we review the current knowledge on the quality of life assessment in chronic pancreatitis patients.