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Ushuaia, one of five Antarctic gateway cities worldwide, is one of the most prosperous places in Argentina. However, its initial impression to visitors as a highly affluent town can be misleading. ...

The Polar Regions are undergoing rapid environmental change while simultaneously witnessing growth and diversification of human activity. These changes call for more responsive, detailed and specialized weather, water, ice and climate (WWIC) information services so that the risks related to human activities can be minimized. Drawn from an extensive literature review this article provides an examination of selected sectors and their uses of WWIC information services in order to offer an initial understanding of diverse environmental forecasting needs. Utilizing a mobilities perspective we provide a characterization of mobility in the Polar Regions to help contextualize current WWIC uses and needs. Using four illustrative case studies of polar mobilities (community activities; cruise tourism; shipping; and government and research operations) the article explores two broad questions: (1) How are mobilities characterized in the Polar Regions? (2) What is known about the role of WWIC information in Polar mobilities? The findings suggest an incongruence between the information provided and the ways in which WWIC information is both used and needed by various sectors. Knowledge gaps are outlined that suggest more efforts are needed to understand the highly complex set of interconnections between WWIC users, providers, mobilities and decision-making across the Polar Regions.

The Arctic and the Antarctic Peninsula have been warming at a higher rate than any other region in the world with profound environmental, socioeconomic and political consequences. The prospects of ...

Environmental conditions in Polar Regions are becoming more dynamic due to climate change. As sea ice melts, the range of human activities in Polar Regions are projected to increase, while weather conditions are becoming more extreme and unpredictable. Provision and use of weather, water, ice and climate (WWIC) information plays a key role in ensuring that polar activities are conducted as safely as possible and can contribute to a reduction of the environmental footprint of human activities. In this article, we explore the WWIC information provider landscape in a polar context, drawing on a database we compiled to characterize the diversity of providers. The database is built on available literature and on an extensive desk-based research of WWIC information provider websites. We analyse the 374 providers categorized by (a) institutional background (public vs private), (b) the position of the provider relative to activities in the WWIC information space, and (c) the users they serve. While governmental institutions have a strong presence in information provision, new types of providers are now entering the scene. Scientific actors seem to play a substantial role as users as well as major providers of WWIC information services.

The future is uncertain for Antarctica, with many possibilities – some more plausible, others more preferable. Indeed, the region and its governance regime may be reaching (or may have reached) a crossroads moment as a result of a series of challenges, including the changing Antarctic climate and environment, increasing human activity, shifting values among Antarctic states and a low-cost, somewhat benign governance regime (the Antarctic Treaty System). Within this context there are a number of interdependent drivers that are likely to influence Antarctica's future over, say, 25 years: global environmental and socio-economic developments; Antarctic governance; Antarctic research, including national Antarctic programme operations; and Antarctic tourism. The research presented here involved a thorough examination of Antarctic literature on current Antarctic developments and challenges, and an assessment of global trends. Scenarios were developed through a facilitated workshop process. From these, four future scenarios were developed based on interactions between these drivers. The resulting scenarios provide a dynamic, evolving possibility space to be explored as a means of understanding where Antarctic issues might evolve, depending on the growth or diminishing importance of drivers. In turn these suggest that more structured polar futures are needed based on formal quantitative and qualitative data.

The view from the south is, more than ever, dominated by ominous signs of change. Antarctica and the Southern Ocean are intrinsic to the Earth system, and their evolution is intertwined with and influences the course of the Anthropocene. In turn, changes in the Antarctic affect and presage humanity's future. Growing understanding is countering popular beliefs that Antarctica is pristine, stable, isolated, and reliably frozen. An aspirational roadmap for Antarctic science has facilitated research since 2014. A renewed commitment to gathering further knowledge will quicken the pace of understanding of Earth systems and beyond. Progress is already evident, such as addressing uncertainties in the causes and pace of ice loss and global sea-level rise. However, much remains to be learned. As an iconic global “commons,” the rapidity of Antarctic change will provoke further political action. Antarctic research is more vital than ever to a sustainable future for this One Earth.

Whilst nationalism is a recognised force globally, its framing is predicated on experience in conventionally occupied parts of the world. The familiar image of angry young men waving Kalashnikovs means that the idea that nationalism might be at play in Antarctica has to overcome much instinctive resistance, as well as the tactical opposition of the keepers of the present Antarctic political arrangements. The limited consideration of nationalism in Antarctica has generally been confined to the past, particularly “Heroic-Era” and 1930s–1940s expeditions. This article addresses the formations of nationalism in the Antarctic present. Antarctic nationalism need not present in the same shape as nationalisms elsewhere to justify being called nationalism. Here it occurs in a virtual or mediated form, remote from the conventional metropolitan territories of the states and interests concerned. The key aspect of Antarctic nationalism is its contemporary form and intensity. We argue that given the historic difficulties of Antarctic activities, and the geopolitical constraints of the Cold War, it has only been since the end of that Cold War that a more muscular nationalism has been able to flourish in Antarctica. Our assessment is that there at least 11 bases upon which Antarctic nationalism might arise: (i) formally declared claims to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica; (ii) relative proximity of Antarctica to one’s metropolitan territory; (iii) historic and institutional associations with Antarctica; (iv) social and cultural associations; (v) regional or global hegemonic inclinations; (vi) alleged need in relation to resources; (vii) contested uses or practices in Antarctica; (viii) carry-over from intense antipathies outside Antarctica; (ix) national pride in, and mobilisation through, national Antarctic programmes; (x) infrastructure and logistics arrangements; or (xi) denial or constraint of access by one’s strategic competitors or opponents. In practice of course, these are likely to be manifested in combination. The risks inherent in Antarctic nationalism are the risks inherent in unrestrained nationalism anywhere, compounded by its already weak juridical situation. In Antarctica, the intersection of nationalism with resources poses a particular challenge to the regional order and its commitments to shareable public goods such as scientific research and environmental protection.

Situated to the south of New Zealand in the Southern Ocean are the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands, comprising the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Snares and Bounty Islands. Sometimes referred to as the ‘Forgotten Islands’, these island groups are among the most remote and hostile within New Zealand waters. Yet, as they harbour some of the country’s most unique biodiversity and contain some of the world’s least modified landforms, they were recognized in 1998 with the designation of World Heritage Area status. It is not surprising therefore that the Islands have long appealed to visitors wishing to explore and understand the Islands’ rich natural and cultural environments. Typically, fare-paying tourists arrive by sea in small- to medium-sized expedition-style cruise vessels, although in recent years, the number of small vessels, such as yachts and sail boats, has increased. The most recent Conservation Management Strategy (2016) proposes developing and implementing a visitor monitoring programme to determine the effects of visitors on the natural and cultural environment, as well as on the visitor experience itself. However, there is only piecemeal data published on visitor numbers (especially since the mid-1990s) upon which to base visitor monitoring, and there is only limited evidence regarding the range of possible impacts visitors may have, including direct and indirect impact on wildlife, soils, and vegetation. In order to address this gap in knowledge, this case study draws on stakeholder interviews (n = 4), and a range of secondary sources (including visitor statistics from the Department of Conservation, tour operators and other published works) to provide an overview and update on visitation to the Islands, including site-specific data, an assessment of tourist impacts, and how impacts are currently monitored and managed.

Representing the main commercial activity on the Antarctic continent, Antarctic tourism is increasingly thrust into the limelight as both benefactor and detractor to the environmental and political integrity of Antarctica. In view of its unprecedented growth, questions arise about the limitations of future tourism development in Antarctica. This paper assesses Antarctic tourism development over the last five decades and evaluates its current and future status from the viewpoints of Antarctic tourism stakeholders. This assessment is informed by interviews with Antarctic tourism stakeholders and a Delphi study undertaken in 2007. The authors found that Antarctic tourism stakeholders are concerned about the increasing scale and diversification of Antarctic tourism and generally subscribe to a conservation imperative when expressing their hopes for the future use of Antarctica and the development of Antarctic tourism. In conclusion, the rapid development of Antarctic tourism requires structural, institutional and legislative changes if Antarctic tourism regulation is to remain successful.

Tourism is a late starter in Antarctica. However, visitor numbers have increased dramatically since the 1990s to more than 30,000 per summer season, raising concerns about the potential impacts on the continent and the surrounding ocean. Unsurprisingly, the rapid increase in the numbers of people visiting Antarctica has had significant consequences for the regulation and management of Antarctic tourism. Since the creation of the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) in 1991, much of the in situ management of Antarctic tourism has been undertaken by the industry itself, which resulted in some complacency by Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs) with regard to tourism regulation. This chapter introduces the main characteristics of Antarctic tourism, its brief history and explores some of the concerns and impacts that can arise from tourism activities in and around Antarctica. This chapter also sheds light on the current regulation, management and regulatory challenges of Antarctic tourism.

Antarctic and Southern Ocean science is vital to understanding natural variability, the processes that govern global change and the role of humans in the Earth and climate system. The potential for new knowledge to be gained from future Antarctic science is substantial. Therefore, the international Antarctic community came together to ‘scan the horizon’ to identify the highest priority scientific questions that researchers should aspire to answer in the next two decades and beyond. Wide consultation was a fundamental principle for the development of a collective, international view of the most important future directions in Antarctic science. From the many possibilities, the horizon scan identified 80 key scientific questions through structured debate, discussion, revision and voting. Questions were clustered into seven topics: i) Antarctic atmosphere and global connections, ii) Southern Ocean and sea ice in a warming world, iii) ice sheet and sea level, iv) the dynamic Earth, v) life on the precipice, vi) near-Earth space and beyond, and vii) human presence in Antarctica. Answering the questions identified by the horizon scan will require innovative experimental designs, novel applications of technology, invention of next-generation field and laboratory approaches, and expanded observing systems and networks. Unbiased, non-contaminating procedures will be required to retrieve the requisite air, biota, sediment, rock, ice and water samples. Sustained year-round access to Antarctica and the Southern Ocean will be essential to increase winter-time measurements. Improved models are needed that represent Antarctica and the Southern Ocean in the Earth System, and provide predictions at spatial and temporal resolutions useful for decision making. A co-ordinated portfolio of cross-disciplinary science, based on new models of international collaboration, will be essential as no scientist, programme or nation can realize these aspirations alone.

The scope and intensity of human activity in the Antarctic region has changed considerably over the past 100 years, resulting in significant modifications to the Antarctic environment and its ecosystems, and to the institutional arrangements governing human activities. Since the nineteenth century, Antarctica has seen periods of heavy resource exploitation followed more latterly by swells of governmental scientific research programmes which have, in turn, led to a plethora of international agreements. By the end of the twentieth century, commercial tourism was also firmly established. Development in human engagement with the Antarctic environment has been accompanied by changes in human values, technologies and ways of thinking. This chapter sets the scene for the entire volume by providing a historical background on human activities, their management and their implications, which other chapters build upon. The purpose of this chapter is not to explore the full breadth of human activities, environmental impacts and governance arrangements in Antarctica. Rather, it aims to provide a contextual framework that can be used to anchor together the diverse subjects treated in the subsequent chapters.

The future scenarios developed by the contributors to this volume communicate a strong message. They concur that existing environmental management practices and the current system of governance are insufficient to meet the obligations set out under the Madrid Protocol to protect the Antarctic environment, let alone to address the challenges facing a warmer and busier Antarctic in the twenty-first century and beyond. However, not all is doom and gloom. A variety of environmental protection provisions have already been agreed. Reassertion and full compliance to their objectives, as well as wider use of existing environmental management tools (e.g. monitoring, information sharing, systematic designation of protected areas) can significantly increase the protection of the Antarctic environment. Notwithstanding, contentious and strategic issues need to be addressed urgently and proactively. Long-term and large-scale considerations need to permeate throughout all the steps of planning, decision making, implementation, enforcement, monitoring and compliance. Decisions should be guided by long-term visions and goals that are supported by genuine commitment from all actors. Multiple dimensions and perspectives of human engagement with the Antarctic environment (e.g. time, space, individual and collective values, ecosystems) need to be taken into consideration. Effective Antarctic environmental governance can only exist within the context of a stable and supportive governance regime that is invested with genuine political will and necessary resources. This ultimately depends on how much Antarctic Treaty Parties or, in fact, humankind in general, want to protect the Antarctic environment. The future of human engagement with the Antarctic environment draws on basic human values that underlie all decision making. We strongly recommend continued and coordinated studies into the values that different publics and Antarctic Treaty Party members actually associate with Antarctica and into how these values manifest themselves in human behaviour in Antarctica as well as in its governance. Finally, the Antarctic exists within a global context, and its environment cannot be protected through efforts within the Antarctic only. The sustainability of the Antarctic environment also depends on the preservation and broadening of agreed provisions within the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), links between the ATS and other relevant global environmental agreements and global environmental initiatives.

The Antarctic Treaty System has established the strategic vision of Antarctica as a natural reserve, set aside for peace and science in the interest of all of humankind. However, the strategic focus that is implied by the notion of a stable, long-term institutional arrangement is not reflected in the system’s current operating rules and regulatory decisions. A combination of the growing human footprint, avoidance to deal with contentious issues, weaknesses in the implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment process and lack of strategic thinking in the environmental management of the Antarctic region as a whole contribute to the accumulation of environmental impacts, the degradation of the once-pristine Antarctic environment and the attrition of Antarctica’s unique values. Experiences in the use of strategic thinking and strategic environmental assessment tools in and outside of Antarctica represent exemplars that can be adopted by stakeholders in an Antarctic setting and can be scaled up to the Antarctic region as a whole. A more strategic approach to environmental governance in Antarctica should consist of different components, including strategic thinking (resulting in visions, goals and action plans), planning, decision making (engaging decision makers to commit the necessary resources to implement decisions), implementation and monitoring (observing and reflecting on the effectiveness of actions). In view of growing global interests in Antarctic activities and resources and the loss of Antarctic exceptionalism, a more collective and structural approach to strategic governance is necessary to guarantee the future sustainability of the Antarctic region.

The thematic cluster ‘‘Human impacts in the Arctic and Antarctic’’ in Polar Research has its origins in the International Polar Year (2007-09) Oslo Science Conference held in Oslo, Norway, from 8 to 12 June 2010. We were the co-convenors of the session ‘‘Human impacts in the Arctic and Antarctic: regulatory and management implications,’’ in which 27 talks and 21 posters were presented over the course of two days. We invited contributors to the conference session to explore all types of impacts of human activities and regional environmental change in the polar regions, with a special focus on highlighting the management priorities for the protection of the landscape (environment and people) of the polar regions in the face of increasing human activity. Exploring a wide range of topics ranging from human wildlife interactions to chemical contamination and from whaling to polar tourism, contributors provided examples of existing environmental management regimes that are working as well as those that are not. (Published: 28 December 2012) Citation: Polar Research 2012, 31, 20228, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v31i0.20228