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The purpose of the paper is to review the changes in the mountain glaciers of the Russia North, in its continental part under changing climate, the reaction of glaciers onto fluctuations, primarily air temperature and precipitation over recent decades. The review covers the reaction of climatic systems of the Russian North (Russian Subarctic and North of Baikal region) to climate changes of the late 20th century and the last decades of the 21st century. These are systems located in mountainous countries: the Polar and Subpolar Urals, Byrranga, the Putorana Plateau, the Orulgan, Suntar-Khayata, Chersky ranges, and the highlands of Chukotka, Kolyma and Koryakia. Judging by the obtained trend maps of the main climatic characteristics important for glaciation, the temperature increase from S to N in 1966- 2019 and a decrease in precipitation in approximately this direction contribute to a reduction in the area and mass of glaciers in Russian North. Methods for assessing the size of glaciation and their dynamics were based on a comparison of data from the Catalog of Glaciers of the USSR and later catalog issues (these are the Chukotka and Kolyma glacial systems) with the results of decoding satellite images (Landsat, ASTER, Sentinel-2) and expeditionary information. Most of the studied glacial systems are represented by small forms of glaciation, which are defined. Since estimates of glacier reduction are given for different systems for different periods of time, it was not the task of the review to compile an accurate single picture. The glacier reaction of varying size, morphological type, bedding, aspect is not the same even for approximately similar climate conditions. For each region, variations in mean summer air temperature and cold season precipitation of key (nearest) weather stations for the period from the onset of a positive trend in summer temperatures are given. Under conditions of prolonged climate change towards warming, the climate factor has become the most importrant, which is confirmed by the data presented in this work.

Glaciers of the Verkhneangarsky mountain range are discovered in 2017-2018 and require detailed investigation and cataloging. This group of glaciers includes glaciers of the corrie and morphological types, and, according to the sizes, they should be qualified as small forms of glaciation. Four glacial formations were found during field studies of 2017-2018 together with several snow patches and stone glaciers; these four glaciers were measured and described. The temperature of ice in the glaciers of this region was measured during the investigations. Data on the ice temperature close to the temperature of the surface permafrost layer explain one of the conditions for existence of glaciers in the temperate zone at altitudes of 1800-2000 m. The dynamics of some glacial formations is analyzed in comparison with their present-day sizes, obtained as a result of interpretation of images from Bing maps and Sentinel-2 services, as well as with images of the CORONA mission (1967). The relative stability of the local glacial formations under climate change is related to the underlying permafrost as well as to the forms of occurrence in the relief, and a degree of closure by the stone cover.

Three glaciers and other small glacial formations, which are not mentioned in the USSR Catalog of glaciers as well as in any published article, were found in the area of the Verkhneangarsky (upper Angara) Range on satellite images. Earlier, researchers from the Institute of Geography of Siberian Branch of RAS described a group of glaciers on the Baikal Mountains and the Barguzin Range, which together with the above group of the Verkhneangarsky Range are related to the Baikal basin by the climate conditions. Ogdynda-Maskit Glacier has been described on the spot in 2017, while other glaciers and snow patches are to be investigated in situ in 2018. Together with the above Baikal and Barguzin glaciers, new data allow identification of the Baikal Glacial system. The article presents analysis of climate changes in the region. Trends in mean annual temperature range from 1 to 4 °C/50 years, while the same of summer temperatures change from 1 to 3 °C/50 years, but without any evident spatial distribution between them. Another situation takes place in the spatial distribution of precipitation: trends in total precipitation decrease towards the Baikal Lake, while precipitation of the cold period, on the contrary, slightly increases towards the Lake, but with rather small trend – 10–40 mm per 50 years. The last fact confirms the influence of the Baikal basin on the alimentation of glaciers and snow patches on the Verkhneangarsky Range. Currently, glaciers of the Verkhneangarsky Range undergo a slow regression.

A methodical approach is proposed for calculating the equilibrium line altitudeHELAof glacier systems (on the example of the Northeastern Russia) on the basis of the characteristics that determine it in time and space: from the archive of temperature and precipitation at the grid points (the UDel archive, Delaware University). This data is used in the equation of mass balance of the glacier systems for the calculation of its components. As a result, the output is the inter-annual series of deviations ofHELAfrom the mean value and the ratio between accumulation and solid precipitation in the regular grids over the glacial systems. By the longterm series of theHELAdeviations the periods of minimum and maximumHELAstate were revealed for various glacial systems, as well as linear trends of these series. This made us possible to evaluate theHELAtrends in the future using the linear regression method. The sensitivity of the method of the initial parameters – the mean values of the summer air temperature, solid precipitation and theHELAvalue, received independently, have been estimated. Thus, the method allows detailing theHELAchanges in space with the resolution of the archive used, and in time for each year of the selected climatic period.

The estimation of glaciers of the Suntar-Khayata Mountains (the Northeastern Siberia) in the context of previously published data is presented. Under the background of current warming the glaciers in this region retreat enough quickly, they decrease not only in a real size, but also by the ice thickness. In this paper the mean summer temperature and solid precipitation of the key factors for glaciation, which indicate unfavorable conditions for the glacier existence at present time are presented as spatial distribution of trends (for 45 years, until 2012). The glaciers of the northern massif of the Suntar-Khayata have a negative ice mass balance as their entire surface is below the equilibrium line altitude. Mean thickness of superimposed ice on the glaciers of this massif was about 17 cm. Based on the assumption of climate variation in the Northern Pacific data it is suggested about the beginning of more favorable climatic conditions for the Suntar-Khayata glaciers.

Summary. Results of the analysis of satellite images of 2012 are presented. Square estimates and equilibrium line altitudes are given for Chukchi and Kolyma highland glaciers. These estimates are compared with 1970–80 data by Magadan explorer R. V. Sedov. Significant area reduction is observed for most of the gla cier systems. Evolution of the Chukchi highland glacier systems over the period up to 2030 is projected using climate change estimates from the ensemble of 31 IPCC models run under the RCP 4.5 scenario. Empirical relationships between М. Д. Ананичева, А. М. Карпачевский

The Koryak Upland, located in Russian Far East, has so far been poorly studied in terms of glaciology. The information contained in the USSR Glacier Inventory (1982) was obtained by analysis of topographic maps and aerial photography. On the publication date, the Inventory of Koryak Upland included 715 glaciers. To study of the current state of Koryak glaciers, we used satellite imageries – Landsat, Terra /Aqua (EOS AM-1) and ASTER. Deciphering the scenes showed that a significant portion of the glaciers melted away since the mid-1970's until now. We have found only 237 glaciers. Some glaciers are appeared to be rock glaciers, filled with detrital material, cemented by ice in a single body. They might be taken for real glaciers while categorization. The analysis of the retreat (reduction in area) of Koryak glaciers by groups with the same morphological type and the same aspect was conducted. The total retreat of the glaciers of this region varied from 40 (for those measured in situ) to 70% (mean total) as compared to aerial photography surveys (1950). This is the most intense reduction among the studied glacier systems of the Russian Subarctic. It can be explained by the changes in atmospheric circulation due to climate change, the Koryak Upland dries out while the increasing of annual air temperatures. Significant reduction of the glacier area was an incentive for us to undertake a work to assess the evolution of the glaciers in the near future. We used a GCM – ECHAM5 (B1) as the climatic scenario. The projection method has got further development: we have estimated the evolution of glacier systems in which the prevailing type is corries (relatively small circus glacier). The results show a diverse picture of glacier reduction by area, but in general the glacierization will not disappear for the period 2049–2060, reducing the extent by only 17% of the contemporary state.

The paper compares remotely sensed glacier inventories of the Byrranga, Suntar-Khayata, and Chersky ranges (2003), Koryak Highland and Chukotka mountains (2008) with data from the Inventory of Glaciers of the USSR (1945–1985). We studied changes in glacier area since the Inventory, which was primarily based on aerial photos and field research. The glaciers have been classified by orientation (aspect) and morphological type. Overall the glacierization of the Chersky Range (1970–2003), Suntar-Khayata (1945–2003), Byrranga (1967–2003), Koryak Highland (1950–2003) and Meynypilginsky Range (1984–2008) reduced by about 30, 20, 15, 60 (debatable value) and 25% respectively due to summer temperature rise. Calculation of glacier volumes for the dates indicated in the USSR Glacier Inventory and satellite imagery: during this period in sum for 5 studied glacier regions the area, covered by ice, has decreased by 225.2 km², and ice volume – by 8.7 Gtg. Construction of spatial patterns (maps) of current ELA for 3 different by climate mountain regions – the Suntar-Khayata Mountains– Chersky Range, and Meynypilgynsky Range ( North Far East), showed that despite of retreat of the glaciers, the mean ELA change for the first studied region is not large compared with the data from the Glacier Inventory (100 m ), and significant for the second (100–150 m).

We studied contrasting glacier systems in continental (Orulgan, Suntar-Khayata and Chersky) mountain ranges, located in the region of the lowest temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere at the boundary of Atlantic and Pacific influences – and maritime ones (Kamchatka Peninsula) – under Pacific influence. Our purpose is to present a simple projection method to assess the main parameters of these glacier regions under climate change. To achieve this, constructed vertical profiles of mass balance (accumulation and ablation) based both on meteorological data for the 1950–1990s (baseline period) and ECHAM4 for 2049–2060 (projected period) are used, the latter – as a climatic scenario. The observations and scenarios were used to define the recent and future equilibrium line altitude and glacier terminus altitude level for each glacier system as well as areas and balance components. The altitudinal distributions of ice areas were determined for present and future, and they were used for prediction of glacier extent versus altitude in the system taking into account the correlation between the ELA and glacier-terminus level change. We tested two hypotheses of ice distribution versus altitude in mountain (valley) glaciers – "linear" and "non-linear". The results are estimates of the possible changes of the areas and morphological structure of northeastern Asia glacier systems and their mass balance characteristics for 2049–2060. Glaciers in the southern parts of northeastern Siberia and those covering small ranges in Kamchatka will likely disappear under the ECHAM4 scenario; the best preservation of glaciers will be on the highest volcanic peaks of Kamchatka. Finally, we compare characteristics of the stability of continental and maritime glacier systems under global warming.

In this study we consider contrasting continental (Orulgan, Suntar-Khayata and Chersky ranges located in the Pole of Cold area at the contact of Atlantic and Pacific influences) and maritime (Kamchatka under the Pacific influence) Russian glacier systems. Our purpose is to present a simple method for the projection of change of the main parameters of these glacier systems with climate change. To achieve this aim, we constructed vertical profiles of mass balance (accumulation and ablation) based both on meteorological observations for the mid to late 20th century and an ECHAM4 GCM scenario for 2040–2069. The observations and scenario were used for defining the recent and future equilibrium line altitude (ELA) for each glacier system. The altitudinal distributions of the areas covered with glacier ice were determined for present and future states of the glacier systems, taking into account the correlation of the change of the ELA and glacier-termini levels. We also give estimates of the possible changes of the areas and morphological structure of North-eastern Asia glacier systems and their mass balance characteristics from the ECHAM4 scenario. Finally, we compare characteristics of the continental and maritime glacier systems stability under conditions of global warming.

Data on greenhouse gas emissions, carbon sequestration, and climate warming for Russia have not been adequately assessed. This chapter discusses the impacts of Russia’s economic recession on carbon dioxide emissions and the role of forests and bogs in carbon sequestration.