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Conversion of semi-natural habitats, such as field margins, fallows, hedgerows, grassland, woodlots and forests, to agricultural land could increase agricultural production and help meet rising global food demand. Yet, the extent to which such habitat loss would impact biodiversity and wild species is unknown. Here we survey species richness for four taxa (vascular plants, earthworms, spiders, wild bees) and agricultural yield across a range of arable, grassland, mixed, horticulture, permanent crop, for organic and non-organic agricultural land on 169 farms across 10 European regions. We find that semi-natural habitats currently constitute 23% of land area with 49% of species unique to these habitats. We estimate that conversion of semi-natural land that achieves a 10% increase in agricultural production will have the greatest impact on biodiversity in arable systems and the least impact in grassland systems, with organic practices having better species retention than nonorganic practices., This work was funded by the European Union through FP7 project BioBio (Indicators for biodiversity in organic and low-input farming systems; www.biobio-indicator.org; Agreement Nr. 227161), by the Austrian Ministry for Science and Research, and by the Lendület program of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

Green alder (Alnus viridis) is a shrub species that has expanded over former pastures in Central Europe due to land abandonment, leading to negative agri-environmental impacts, such as a reduction in forage yield and quality and an increase in nitrate leaching. Robust livestock breeds such as Highland cattle could be used to control A. viridis encroachment. The objectives of this study were to investigate the impact of A. viridis encroachment on plant community composition and diversity and to map the spatial distribution of Highland cattle in A. viridis-encroached pastures. During the summer of 2019, three different Highland cattle herds were placed along an A. viridis encroachment gradient. A total of 58 botanical surveys were carried out before grazing to assess plant community composition, pastoral value, and ecological indicator values. The spatial distribution of cattle was studied during the whole grazing period by monitoring six to eight cows equipped with GPS collars in each herd. Plant species associated with higher pastoral values of the vegetation were found in areas with lower A. viridis cover, while highly encroached areas were dominated by a few nitrophilus and shade-tolerant broad-leaved species and by ferns. Cattle spent more time in areas with higher pastoral value but did not avoid areas with high cover of A. viridis, on steep slopes or far from water. These results show that Highland cattle are able to tolerate harsh environmental conditions and that they can exploit A. viridis-encroached pastures. This suggests that they have a high potential to reduce A. viridis encroachment in the long-term.

Natural estrogens such as 17α-estradiol (E2α), 17β-estradiol (E2β), estrone (E1), and estriol (E3), released to surface waters from both urban and agricultural sources, are endocrine disrupting for fish. Here, we assess the prevalence of livestock farming derived natural estrogens in tributaries and ponds in the agriculturally dominated catchment of Lake Baldegg, Switzerland. Passive samplers were deployed in the main tributary and daily time-proportional water samples were collected in five tributaries for 30 days at the beginning of the vegetation period. Furthermore, we took grab samples of 12 ponds in the catchment. Aqueous samples were liquid–liquid extracted, derivatized, and analysed with LC-MS/MS and stream water samples additionally with ERα-CALUX, a bioassay for assessing total estrogenic activity. Natural estrogens were regularly detected, with mean concentrations ranging from below the limit of detection to 0.55 ng L−1 for E2β and E1, respectively, and passive sampling and bioassay results largely confirmed these findings. Monte Carlo simulated mean natural estrogen concentrations underestimated measured ones by a factor of three to 11. An agricultural area's hydrological contribution and connectivity to surface waters seemed to be more important for the development of estrogen concentrations in streams than livestock densities in a catchment or the actual loads of slurry applied. Pond water occasionally contained natural estrogens in concentrations up to 8.6 ng L−1 for E2α. The environmental quality standards of the European Union (0.4 ng L−1 for E2β and 3.6 ng L−1 for E1) were never exceeded for longer than a day in tributaries, but E1 reached critical concentrations for aquatic organisms in ponds.

Modern breeding has formed a multitude of cattle breeds ranging from undemanding, low-productive breeds to high-productive, specialized dairy, or beef cattle. The choice of breed has important implications for farm management, but its impact on pasture vegetation is underestimated. We hypothesized (i) that anatomy, movement, and foraging behavior of cattle are allometrically related on the individual level, (ii) that differences among cattle are not explained by individual variation alone but also by breed, and (iii) that anatomy, movement, and foraging behavior of a cattle breed is related to its productivity. In order to test these hypotheses, we conducted a controlled grazing experiment in which three cattle breeds simultaneously grazed three types of heterogenous, alpine pastures: low-productive Highland cattle (average weight: 358 kg); local, dual-purpose Original Braunvieh (582 kg); and high-productive Angus × Holstein crossbreed (679 kg). We measured body weight and claw base of nine cows per breed after 10 weeks of grazing alpine pastures. Over a period of 9 days, we recorded the step frequency and lying time by pedometer and space use by GPS. Moreover, we visually observed foraging behavior on three occasions per cow. Forage selectivity and quality were calculated for every cow's diet. Allometric relationships were analyzed on the individual level by fitting standardized major axes. For most parameters measured, we detected strong allometric relationships and clear differences among breeds that depended on the level of productivity. The claws of Highland cattle were relatively large compared to their body weight and thus they exerted less static pressure than other breeds. Moreover, the more productive a breed was, the higher its selectivity and step frequency were. For example, Highland cattle foraged shrubs and thistles more frequently than high-productive Angus × Holstein. The latter walked longer distances to select higher-quality forage, while Highland cattle used the space more evenly, visited steeper slopes, and moved further away from water points. Irrespective of breed, vegetation composition influenced cattle behavior: On pastures of low forage quality, animals walked more, foraged more selectively, and used space less evenly. In conclusion, the observed breed-specific differences can be used to improve pasture management and grassland conservation.

Spatial monitoring of grassland management is crucial for ecosystem assessment and the establishment of sustainable agriculture. Switzerland is covered by large areas of small structured grassland parcels differing in management practices and use intensities, making the mapping of grassland management challenging. We present a monitoring tool to map grassland management, distinguishing between mowing- and grazing practice, and between different use intensities for Swiss agroecosystems. By analyzing pixelwise spectral time series of 2015, derived from satellite imagery of the Landsat archive, we estimated the number of management events and biomass productivity. Both estimates were used to map classes of dominant management practices and use intensities following a stepwise clustering approach. The grassland management (GM) classes were evaluated relative to established spectral and topographical patterns of grassland use intensity, and in terms of spatial conformity with available regional land use data. The GM classes were also analyzed with respect to management related vegetation plot data on species diversity, as well as on indicator values for nutrient supply and management tolerance. The stepwise clustering gave three use intensity classes for each dominant management practice of grazing (pasture) and mowing (meadow). Use intensity was higher for meadows than pastures with a distinct intensity gradient for each grassland practice. The GM classes reproduced established spectral and topographical patterns of grassland use intensity, indicated by increased standard deviations (SD) of spectral time series profiles (e.g. mean SD of 0.048 for pastures and 0.054 for meadows) and lower slopes (e.g. mean slopes of 10° for pastures and 7° for meadows). The averaged spatial conformity of the GM classes with a cantonal land use map was 82% for meadows and 97% for pastures. The GM classes spatially matched with land use patterns of three subregions, e.g. with an areal proportion of 73% pasture classes for a subregion dominated by grazing. Moreover, the GM classes reproduced established vegetation patterns of grassland use intensity along the GM intensity gradient, showing a mean decrease in species richness (33%), as well as a mean increase in indicator values for nutrient supply (5%), grazing tolerance (4%), and mowing tolerance (6%).

Traditional summer pastures in the Alps have been shaped by centuries of grazing by domestic livestock. To understand the effects of this land use on nutrient cycling, we quantified phosphorus (P) fluxes on a summer farm in southeastern Switzerland. We used high-frequency GPS tracking to record the spatial distribution of animal activities over an entire grazing season, and used these data to model spatial patterns of P depletion and accumulation at various spatial scales (the entire farm, four vegetation groups, 900 m2 sampling plots and 10 × 10 m2 grid cells). Since the model depended on parameter values obtained from diverse sources, we tested its robustness using Monte Carlo simulations based upon varying parameter values. The model indicated very small net P fluxes (between − 0.05 and + 0.05 kg P ha−1 yr−1) over nearly half (49%) of the pasture, mostly in dwarf-shrub vegetation. In a further 44% of the area, P depletion exceeded ‐0.05 kg P ha−1 yr−1, representing a total loss of 39.4 kg P yr−1 (2.1 kg P ha−1). A positive P balance of over 0.05 kg P ha−1 yr−1 was indicated for 6.6% of the area, representing a total annual accumulation of 16.4 kg P (1.8 kg P ha−1). The overall P balance for the entire summer farm was thus negative. The patches of substantial depletion or accumulation formed a mosaic in the areas most used by cattle. More active management of cattle and stable manure is recommended to maintain the delivery of ecosystem services.

Abandonment of pastures and successional shrub expansion are widespread in European mountain regions. Moderate shrub encroachment is perceived beneficial for plant diversity by adding new species without outcompeting existing ones, yet systematic evidence is missing. We surveyed vegetation along 24 transects from open pasture into shrubland across the Swiss Alps using a new protocol distinguishing different spatial scales, shrub cover of each plot (2 x 2 m) and larger-scale zonal cover along the transect. Data were analysed using generalized linear models of shrub cover, shrub species and environmental conditions, such as geology, aspect or soil. Most shrub communities were dominated byAlnus viridis(62% of transects) andPinus mugo(25%), and the rest by other shrub species (13%). These dominant shrub species explained vegetation response to shrub cover well, without need of environmental variables in the model. Compared to open pasture,A. viridisresulted in an immediate linear decline in plant species richness and a marginal increase in beta-diversity (maximally + 10% at 35% cover). DenseA. viridishosted 62% less species than open pasture. InP. mugo,species richness remained stable until 40% shrub cover and dropped thereafter; beta-diversity peaked at 35% cover. Hence, scatteredP. mugoincreases beta-diversity without impairing species richness. In transects dominated by other shrubs, species richness and beta-diversity peaked at 40-60% shrub cover (+ 23% both).A. viridisreduced species richness in a larger area around the shrubs thanP. mugo. Therefore, effects of shrub encroachment on plant diversity cannot be generalized and depend on dominant shrub species., Alpine Botany, 130 (2), ISSN:1664-2201, ISSN:1664-221X

Many mountain pastures consist of a mosaic of grassland and shrub communities. Ongoing changes in mountain agriculture have affected the balance between the two elements of the mosaic. In order to understand the consequences of these changes for ecosystem functioning, we studied patterns in vegetation, root structure and soil properties along transects of varying grassland-to-shrub proportions. Our hypothesis was that differences in the vegetation aboveground are accompanied by differences belowground, related to soil properties and depth. The research was conducted at a subalpine site in the Trentino region (South-eastern Alps), consisting of Nardus stricta grasslands alternating with shrub patches of Rhododendron ferrugineum. Our investigation showed that the composition of vegetation was mainly governed by R. ferrugineum cover and less by soil properties. Plant species richness peaked at low to intermediate degrees of shrub cover and composition between transects became more similar with increa...

Farmers are key players in actions to halt biodiversity loss from farmland. However, if farmers are to sustain biodiversity, they must first be adequately informed about biodiversity and understand its drivers. Measuring biodiversity at the farm scale is difficult because of the structural complexity of many farms, and because different aspects of diversity can be considered desirable, e.g. species richness or rarity. In this study we examined 19 grassland farms in Central Switzerland, and sampled plants, earthworms, spiders and bees using a stratified sampling design. We considered several metrics of species diversity, but found two particularly useful at farm scale: average richness (area-weighted) and farm uniqueness in terms of species identity. Average richness reflects the expected species richness in a random sample taken on the farm, and farm uniqueness is the contribution of a farm to the total species richness of all farms under study. Average richness and farm uniqueness are complementary and reflect different aspects of biodiversity. We demonstrate how combining these metrics enables tailored recommendations for enhancing species diversity on the farm.

Grasslands provide multiple Ecosystem Services (ES) such as forage provision, carbon sequestration or habitat provision. Knowledge about the trade-offs between these ES is of great importance for grassland management. Yet, the outcome of different management strategies on ES provision is highly uncertain due to spatial variability. We aim to characterize the provision (level and spatial variability) of grassland ES under various management strategies. To do so, we combine empirical data for multiple ES with spatially explicit census data on land use intensities. We analyzed the variations of five ES (forage provision, climate regulation, pollination, biodiversity conservation and outdoor recreation) using data from biodiversity fieldwork, experimental plots for carbon as well as social network data from Flickr. These data were used to calculate the distribution of modelled individual and multiple ES values from different grassland management types in a Swiss case study region using spatial explicit information for 17,383 grassland parcels. Our results show that (1) management regime and intensity levels play an important role in ES provision but their impact depends on the ES. In general, extensive management, especially in pastures, favors all ES but forage provision, whereas intensive management favors only forage provision and outdoor recreation; (2) ES potential provision varies between parcels under the same management due to the influence of environmental drivers, related to topography and landscape structure; (3) there is a trade-offs between forage provision and other ES at the cantonal level but a synergy between forage provision and biodiversity conservation within the grassland categories, due to the negative impact of elevation on both ES. Information about multiple ES provision is key to support effective agri-environmental measures and information about the spatial variability can prevent uncertain outputs of decision-making processes.

Highland cattle are lighter, slower-growing and less demanding on forage than most production-oriented cattle breeds, which may affect vegetation composition. This study aimed at identifying the importance of breed-dependent impact on the composition of pasture vegetation in comparison to well-investigated factors such as site properties and grazing management. Vegetation was investigated in 50 paired pastures at 25 locations ranging from Swiss mountain areas to lowlands in southern Germany. Pastures in a pair had been grazed by either Highland cattle or a more production-oriented cattle breed for at least 5 years. Plant species composition was assessed on 150 subplots, three per pasture in areas representing different grazing intensities. Generalized linear mixed-effects models, (partial) constrained correspondence analysis and structural equation models were used for data analysis. Despite similar site conditions between the paired pastures at each location, plants on pastures of Highland cattle showed significantly lower indicator values for grazing and trampling tolerance. Both, grazing and trampling were strongly connected and had a common negative effect on plant species diversity. Moreover, Highland cattle had a direct positive influence on diversity, likely due to reduced woody plant species cover and a higher cover of epizoochoric species. This resulted in significantly higher plant species richness (alpha and gamma) on pastures of Highland cattle than those of production-oriented breeds. The observed differences in plant species richness between pastures of different grazing breeds increased with duration of adaptation, i.e. the time a pasture was grazed by a certain breed. The study demonstrates a clear impact of cattle breed on vegetation, which is consistent with the phenotypical differences of the animals. Largely overlooked, cattle breed may explain some of the frequently contrasting responses of vegetation to grazing. The findings have important implications for management decisions and breeding endeavours which go beyond mere productivity objectives. They highlight the potential of low-production Highland cattle to sustain and promote ecosystem services on species-rich, semi-natural grasslands. peerReviewed

The prediction of diffuse herbicide losses to surface waters using process-based models is data and time demanding. There is a need for simpler and more efficient catchment screening tools. We developed and tested a new proxy for screening catchments for their vulnerability to diffuse herbicide losses relying on widely available river flow data only. The proxy combines the fast flow index (FFI) (i.e., the long-term average proportion of fast flow to total discharge) and the fast flow volume (FFVs) (i.e., the stormflow component of the hydrograph during the spring flush period). We tested the proxy and the underlying hypotheses by regression analyses of existing high-frequency, multiannual monitoring datasets of atrazine, metolachlor, alachlor, and acetochlor concentrations from six US and European catchments. The percentages of applied amounts of three of the four herbicides lost to surface water were positively correlated with the FFV, and the slope of the correlation was positively correlated with the FFI. Based on the empirical data, we derived quantitative proxies to estimate atrazine and metolachlor losses based on the measured FFI and FFV values. The application to 65 European catchments revealed that many of them had a lower vulnerability than the six test catchments. The observed FFI dependency of the slope seems reasonable because with increasing FFI less rain is needed to trigger fast flow and more herbicide is available in the topsoil. The proposed FFI-FFVs proxy can guide researchers and authorities in selecting monitoring areas, setting monitoring results into context, and prioritizing mitigation strategies according to catchment vulnerability.

Summary Field studies have shown that diffuse herbicide losses to surface waters often originate from a limited part of a catchment only. These critical source areas (CSA) are characterized by the occurrence of fast-flow processes like surface runoff or macropore flow to tile drains. Moreover, topographic barriers often interrupt the overland flow into the adjacent brook and lead to internal sink areas. From there artificial drains can create a shortcut to the stream network. We tested the predictability of CSA with a modified version of the hydrological Soil Moisture Distribution & Routing model (SMDR). The study area was a small agricultural catchment in Switzerland, in which herbicide losses to surface waters had been experimentally investigated. The small-scale structures, relevant for surface connectivity, were derived using terrain analysis algorithms based on a high-resolution digital elevation map. The analysis showed that surface runoff from a large part (66%) of the study area cannot reach the stream network. Based on prior parameter estimates, the simulated discharge agreed well with the measured values for spring 2000 (Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient of 0.88). Surface saturation was mainly predicted for Gleysol areas, whereby topography was the main driver, and not soil properties. The spatial distribution of CSA and predicted runoff processes agreed well with measured herbicide losses. The main losses were predicted for connected areas prone to surface runoff; additional drained sinks (reinfiltration areas on unconnected areas) were identified as potential risk areas. The predictions are subject to substantial uncertainties. A local sensitivity analysis revealed that the model is most sensitive to parameters describing the lower boundary of the soil (deep percolation and depth of the soil). The spatial extent and the efficiency of the drainage system are also crucial for the spatial variability of herbicide losses.

Field experiments that expose terrestrial ecosystems to climate change factors by manipulations are expensive to maintain, and typically only last a few years. Plant biomass is commonly used to assess responses to climate treatments and to predict climate change impacts. However, response to the treatments might be considerably different between the early years and a decade later. The aim of this data analysis was to develop and apply a method for evaluating changes in plant biomass responses through time, in order to provide a firm basis for discussing how the ‘short-term’ response might differ from the ‘long-term’ response. Across 22 sites situated in the northern hemisphere, which covered three continents, and multiple ecosystems (grasslands, shrublands, moorlands, forests, and deserts), we evaluated biomass datasets from long-term experiments with exposure to elevated CO2 (eCO2), warming, or drought. We developed methods for assessing biomass response patterns to the manipulations using polynomial and linear (piecewise) model analysis and linked the responses to site-specific variables such as temperature and rainfall. Polynomial patterns across sites indicated changes in response direction over time under eCO2, warming, and drought. In addition, five distinct pattern types were confirmed within sites: ‘no response’, ‘delayed response’, ‘directional response’, ‘dampening response’, and ‘altered response’ patterns. We found that biomass response direction was as likely to change over time as it was to be consistent, and therefore suggest that climate manipulation experiments should be carried out over timescales covering both short- and long-term responses, in order to realistically assess future impacts of climate change.

Farmland is a major land cover type in Europe and Africa and provides habitat for numerous species. The severe decline in farmland biodiversity of the last decades has been attributed to changes in farming practices, and organic and low-input farming are assumed to mitigate detrimental effects of agricultural intensification on biodiversity. Since the farm enterprise is the primary unit of agricultural decision making, management-related effects at the field scale need to be assessed at the farm level. Therefore, in this study, data were collected on habitat characteristics, vascular plant, earthworm, spider, and bee communities and on the corresponding agricultural management in 237 farms in 13 European and two African regions. In 15 environmental and agricultural homogeneous regions, 6-20 farms with the same farm type (e.g., arable crops, grassland, or specific permanent crops) were selected. If available, an equal number of organic and non-organic farms were randomly selected. Alternatively, farms were sampled along a gradient of management intensity. For all selected farms, the entire farmed area was mapped, which resulted in total in the mapping of 11 338 units attributed to 194 standardized habitat types, provided together with additional descriptors. On each farm, one site per available habitat type was randomly selected for species diversity investigations. Species were sampled on 2115 sites and identified to the species level by expert taxonomists. Species lists and abundance estimates are provided for each site and sampling date (one date for plants and earthworms, three dates for spiders and bees). In addition, farmers provided information about their management practices in face-to-face interviews following a standardized questionnaire. Farm management indicators for each farm are available (e.g., nitrogen input, pesticide applications, or energy input). Analyses revealed a positive effect of unproductive areas and a negative effect of intensive management on biodiversity. Communities of the four taxonomic groups strongly differed in their response to habitat characteristics, agricultural management, and regional circumstances. The data has potential for further insights into interactions of farmland biodiversity and agricultural management at site, farm, and regional scale.

Summary • In grasslands, the loss of structural carbon (C) from nonharvested plant parts is a primary C source for the soil. The amount of input depends not only on the size of structural C pools but also on their loss rates. • In the field, we examined the effects of elevated atmospheric partial pressures of CO2 (pCO2) and nitrogen (N) supply on pool size and rates of structural C loss in stubble and roots of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) by using multiple-pulse labelling and steady-state labelling. • Stubble retained structural C for roughly half the time it was retained in roots. Elevated pCO2 combined with low N supply enlarged the pools of roots and stubble. These conditions also stimulated the rate of structural C loss from stubble and, thus, the amounts available for further transformation. • The potential of multiple-pulse labelling as a field technique is highlighted. The stimulation of structural C loss from stubble by elevated pCO2 at low N provides a missing link between increased C assimilation and low yield response and indicates a potentially higher input of structural C into the soil.

Wild bees, spiders, earthworms and plants contribute considerably to biodiversity in grasslands and fulfil vital ecological functions. They also provide valuable services to agriculture, such as pollination, pest control and maintenance of soil quality. We investigated the responses of wild bees, spiders, earthworms and plants to geographic location, agricultural management and surrounding landscape variables using a dataset of 357 grassland fields within 88 farms in six European regions. Regions and taxonomic groups were selected to have contrasting properties, in order to capture the multiple facets of European grasslands. Geographic location alone had a dominant effect on the fauna and flora communities. Depending on the taxonomic group, various agricultural management and surrounding landscape variables alone had an additional significant effect on observed species richness, rarefied species richness and/or abundance, but it was always small. Bee species richness and abundance decreased with increasing number of mechanical operations (e.g. cutting). Observed spider species richness and abundance were unrelated to measured aspects of agricultural management or to surrounding landscape variables, whereas rarefied species richness showed significant relations to nitrogen input, habitat diversity and amount of grassland habitats in the surroundings. Earthworm abundance increased with increasing nitrogen input but earthworm species richness did not. Observed plant species richness decreased with increasing nitrogen input and increased when there were woody habitats in the surroundings. Rarefied plant species richness decreased with mechanical operations. Investigating multiple regions, taxonomic groups and aspects of fauna and flora communities allowed identifying the main factors structuring communities, which is necessary for designing appropriate conservation measures and ensuring continued supply of services. Wildbienen, Spinnen, Regenwürmer und Pflanzen machen einen bedeutenden Teil der Biodiversität in landwirtschaftlich genutztem Grünland aus und bilden eine wichtige Grundlage für ökologische Dienstleistungen. Dazu gehören z.B. Bestäubung, biologische Schädlingsbekämpfung und der Erhalt der Bodengesundheit. Wir untersuchten, inwiefern die vier taxonomischen Gruppen von der geografischen Lage, von Bewirtschaftungs- und von Umgebungsfaktoren abhängig sind. In die Studie gingen Daten aus sechs europäischen Regionen ein, die in 88 landwirtschaftlichen Betrieben auf insgesamt 357 Mähwiesen und Weiden erhoben wurden. Die Regionen und taxonomischen Gruppen wurden gezielt ausgewählt, um eine möglichst breite Vielfalt im europäischen Agrargrünland abzudecken. Die geografische Lage beeinflusste die Artengesellschaften am stärksten. Je nach taxonomischer Gruppe hatten verschiedene Bewirtschaftungs- und Umweltfaktoren zusätzlich einen signifikanten, aber kleinen Effekt auf den beobachteten Artenreichtum, den rarefizierten Artenreichtum und/oder die Abundanz. Bei den Bienen nahmen der Artenreichtum und die Abundanz mit der Anzahl maschineller Bearbeitungen (z.B. Schnitt) pro Jahr ab. Weder der beobachtete Spinnenartenreichtum noch die Spinnenabundanz waren abhängig von den erhobenen Bewirtschaftungs- oder Umgebungsfaktoren. Der rarefizierte Spinnenartenreichtum hingegen stand im Zusammenhang mit dem Stickstoffeintrag, der Habitatvielfalt und dem Grünlandanteil in der Umgebung. Bei den Regenwürmern erhöhte sich die Abundanz mit dem Stickstoffeintrag, nicht aber der Artenreichtum. Der beobachtete Artenreichtum der Pflanzen nahm mit dem Stickstoffeintrag ab und mit dem Gehölzanteil in der Umgebung zu. Auf den rarifizierten Pflanzenartenreichtum hatte die Anzahl maschineller Bewirtschaftungen zusätzlich einen negativen Effekt. Die Untersuchung von mehreren Regionen, taxonomischen Gruppen und Aspekten von Artengesellschaften erlaubte es, wichtige Einflussfaktoren auf Artengesellschaften zu erkennen. Diese Resultate können dazu beitragen wirksame Massnahmen für den Erhalt der Biodiversität und die Sicherstellung der ökologischen Leistungen zu erarbeiten.

Predicting discharge in ungauged catchments or contaminant movement through soil requires knowledge of the distribution and spatial heterogeneity of hydrological soil properties. Because hydrological soil information is not available at a European scale, we reclassified the Soil Geographical Database of Europe (SGDBE) at 1:1 million in a hydrological manner by adopting the Hydrology Of Soil Types (HOST) system developed in the UK. The HOST classification describes dominant pathways of water movement through soil and was related to the base flow index (BFI) of a catchment (the long-term proportion of base flow on total stream flow). In the original UK study, a linear regression of the coverage of HOST classes in a catchment explained 79% of BFI variability. We found that a hydrological soil classification can be built based on the information present in the SGDBE. The reclassified SGDBE and the regression coefficients from the original UK study were used to predict BFIs for 103 catchments spread throughout Europe. The predicted BFI explained around 65% of the variability in measured BFI in catchments in Northern Europe, but the explained variance decreased from North to South. We therefore estimated new regression coefficients from the European discharge data and found that these were qualitatively similar to the original estimates from the UK. This suggests little variation across Europe in the hydrological effect of particular HOST classes, but decreasing influence of soil on BFI towards Southern Europe. Our preliminary study showed that pedological information is useful for characterising soil hydrology within Europe and the long-term discharge regime of catchments in Northern Europe. Based on these results, we draft a roadmap for a refined hydrological classification of European soils.

Background In order to understand the impact of grazing livestock on pasture ecosystems, it is essential to quantify pasture use intensity at a fine spatial scale and the factors influencing its distribution. The observation and analysis of animal activity is greatly facilitated by remote tracking technology and new statistical frameworks allowing for rapid inference on spatially correlated data. We used these advances to study activity patterns of GPS-tracked cows in six summer-grazing areas in the Swiss Alps that differed in environmental conditions as well as livestock management. Results Recorded GPS positions were assigned to the activities of grazing, resting, and walking, and were discretized on a regular grid. Regression models with spatially structured effects were fitted to the spatial activity patterns using Integrated Nested Laplace Approximation. They indicated that terrain slope, forage quality, and stocking rate were the primary factors determining cow activity in the six study areas. Terrain slope significantly reduced livestock activity in five of the six areas and sparse forage availability significantly reduced grazing in all areas. In three areas, grazing pressure imposed by the pasture rotation was observable in the grazing pattern. Insolation, distance to the shed, and distance to water were less important for cow activity. In addition to the main factors identified across all study areas, we found effects operating only in individual areas, which were partly explained by specific environmental and management characteristics. In study areas with few paddocks, environmental variables exerted a stronger control on livestock activity than in areas with a short stocking period per paddock. Conclusions The data demonstrated that a strict pasture rotation with short stocking periods is necessary to influence livestock activity, and hence potential effects on ecosystem processes. Without grazing management, livestock activity is primarily determined by the environment. Such insight is indispensable for studying relationships between grazing animals and ecosystem characteristics, and for developing management strategies to optimize ecosystem services. The analysis also highlighted the need for an appropriate statistical treatment of bio-logging data, since various estimates were biased if spatial autocorrelation was ignored. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40462-015-0053-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.