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The woody plant, Colophospermum mopane, occurs as either a shrub or tree in shrublands and woodlands, respectively, in the central Kruger National Park, South Africa. As a first step in identifying which soil properties potentially influence the structure of C. mopane in these landscapes, we investigated the soil chemistry of the pedoderm in shrublands and woodlands. A total of 39 composite pedoderm samples (0–2 cm) were analysed. Relative to the woodlands, the pedoderm of the shrublands had significantly lower mean concentrations of P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Na, B and C. Of the nutrients analysed, only B had a mean concentration likely to be constraining the growth of plants (0.16 ± 0.01 vs 0.69 ± 0.05 mg B kg−1 in shrublands and woodlands, respectively). We suggest that the C. mopane shrubs do not establish as trees in the shrublands because deficiency of B limits their growth and increases the competitive strength of the grass sward relative to eudicot plants in the landscape.

Trees that elephants select are generally at risk to local extirpation. Elephants are the primary drivers of change to large savannah trees, pushing trees over, ring barking or damaging them. These impacts have an adverse effect on the diversity and structure of woody vegetation. Many tree species have slow growth and recruitment rates. This makes it difficult for ecosystems to recover after damage, especially in areas with high densities of elephants. In this study, we mapped the spatial distribution of six endemic and priority tree species that are selected by elephants using Sentinel-2 imagery. Data on the GPS locations of the selected trees were collected and a machine learning algorithm, Random Forest, was used to discriminate between species and to map their spatial distribution in the Venetia-Limpopo Nature Reserve. The algorithm successfully discriminated the different tree species with an overall accuracy of 79.6%, ranking the vegetation red edge (Band-7) and water vapour (Band-9) as the most important bands in the classification. Colophospermum mopane is a dominant tree species in terms of its distribution on the reserve, and according to the classification results, canopies of this species cover approximately 17% of the study area, while Commiphora spp. cover 19%. These findings indicate the effectiveness of Sentinel-2 imagery for mapping savannah tree species that are valuable for conservation and selected by elephants.

Savanna woodlands make a significant contribution to rural households’ livelihoods, providing a wide range of resources as well as generating income. However, the sustainability of the woodland ecosystem is generally affected by the human harvesting intensities. This study aimed at quantifying the woodland resource extraction rates and its effects on woodland structure and density. Data were collected from households using a semi-structured questionnaire, key informant interviews, and from 128 rectangular plots measuring 30 m × 30 m. Vegetation parameters, such as tree density, tree height, diameter at breast height, species, stump density, and stump diameter, were recorded. The results of the study revealed that a total of 649 woody stumps were recorded, with an average of 56 trees removed per hectare. The findings showed that the intensities of stumps varied widely, with a high number of stumps recorded at a distance of 10–15 km from the settlements, where major land-use activities are fuelwood extraction, cultivation, and livestock farming. The results also showed that the increased commercial fuelwood production led to cutting of large mopane trees, which is an indicator of unsustainable harvesting. Based on the harvest rates provided by the respondents, results showed that large quantities of fuelwood were harvested for trading, which could put pressure on the woodland ecosystem, consequently resulting in woodland degradation. This study provides forest and range resource managers with valuable information on the quantities of stumps as an indication of tree removals and could be useful in developing effective monitoring strategies and promoting sustainable forest and woodland management.

Background The prevalence of allergic diseases is increasing in Zimbabwe and the data relate to local as well as exotic allergen sources. As entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, is a recognised source of local allergens, we sought to measure the prevalence of and risk factors for sensitisation to Imbrasia belina (mopane worm), a popular edible insect. This was investigated alongside other locally relevant allergens in a rural community in Gwanda district, south of Zimbabwe. Methods A cross sectional study was conducted among 496 adults and children aged 10 years and above in Gwanda district, a mopane worm harvesting area in Zimbabwe. Data on individual characteristics and mopane worm exposure factors were collected using questionnaires. Sensitivity to allergens was assessed by performing skin prick tests at a local clinic using 10 different commercial allergen extracts (Stallergenes, France) and in-house extracts of mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) and mopane leaves (Colophospermum mopane). Data were analysed using Stata version 13 software. Results The prevalence of sensitisation to at least one allergen was 31.17% (n = 144). The prevalence of atopy was higher in adults (33.33%) than in children (23.53%) (p = 0.059). The commonest inhalant allergen sources were mopane worm (14.29%), Tyrophagus putrescentiae (14.29%), mopane leaves (13.42%), Alternaria alternata (6.49%) and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (6.49%). Polysensitisation was demonstrated in the study population and of the 108 participants (75%) who were sensitised to two or more allergens, 66 (61%) were women. Sensitisation to mopane worm and mopane leaves often clustered with Tyrophagus putrescentiae amongst adults. Adjusted logistic regression analyses between mopane worm sensitisation and self-reported exposure variables showed that sensitisation was more likely amongst mopane worm harvesters (OR = 1.92, 95%CI = 0.77–4.79), those who cooked or roasted mopane worms during harvesting (OR = 2.69, 95%CI = 0.78–9.31) and harvesting without personal protective equipment (PPE) (OR = 2.12, 95%CI = 0.83–5.44) compared to non-harvesters. Conclusion Atopic sensitization was common in this mopane worm harvesting community in Gwanda district of Zimbabwe. There was frequent co-sensitisation of mopane worm and mopane leaves with Tyrophagus putrescentiae in children and adults. It is important to determine the clinical relevance of our findings, particularly relating to mopane worm sensitisation.

SummaryThe near-threatened Lilian’s Lovebird Agapornis lilianae is a small parrot endemic to the Zambezi basin in south-east Africa. The species has a fragmented distribution predominantly within mopane woodlands and is widely referred to as a mopane specialist. The harvesting of mopane trees for charcoal production and timber are having widespread impacts on this woodland habitat, raising concerns over its capacity to support biodiversity. This study aimed to understand the key drivers determining the occurrence of Lilian’s Lovebird in the mopane woodlands of Zambia, focusing particularly on aspects of woodland structure, including the size and density of trees. We used a MaxEnt species distribution model based on historical species occurrence data, to inform selection of 116 survey plots in the Luangwa, Luano and Zambezi valleys. Each plot was sampled for Lilian’s Lovebirds and woodland structure described. Occurrence of Lilian’s Lovebird was found to be positively associated with the size of mopane trees (both height and diameter at breast height) suggesting that large ‘cathedral’ mopane trees provide a key resource for the species and that conservation efforts should focus on the protection of sites containing large trees. No Lilian’s Lovebirds were recorded in areas where they previously occurred to the west of Lower Zambezi National Park, and there was an absence of ‘cathedral’ mopane habitat in this area.

This study assesses the current mode of forest use and management at rural community level in South Africa with a view to locating space for forest-based green growth initiatives development and factors that might shape the uptake of such initiatives. This was done with respect to the need to decouple rural livelihood activities from forest degradation. Vegetation type was used as a criterion to select three municipalities (Makhado, Mutale, and Thulamela) in Vhembe District. Seven rural communities in each municipality were selected giving a total of 21 rural communities. Using stratified proportionate random sampling procedure, a total of 366 households were selected and interviewed. Findings showed that the informal forest sector is best positioned for immediate delivery of green growth benefits to the local communities. Firewood and wild edible insect (mopane worms) were identified as the priority products for forest green growth initiative uptake. However, issues relating to skill and technical capacity were identified as a barrier to the uptake of green growth initiatives in the communities. The study thus recommends capacity enhancement initiatives and forest establishment programmes such as afforestation and reforestation as a means of facilitating forest green growth uptake and delivery of green growth benefits to the study communities.

Global climate change is gradually changing species distribution and their patterns of diversity. Yet, factors that influence the local distribution and habitat preferences for southern African species remain largely unexplored. Here, we computed the suitable habitats in the southern African region for Colophospermum mopane (Benth.) using the maximum entropy (Maxent) modeling approach. We utilized one Global Circulation Model (GCM) and three Representative concentration pathways (RCPs) to determine the current and future distribution of C. mopane. The results showed that the distribution of C. mopane was mainly influenced by solar radiation, annual temperature range, and annual precipitation. According to the species response curves, this species preferred habitats with annual precipitation of 130-200 mm, an annual temperature range of 28° C, and elevations of about 500 m above sea level. The results highlight that the geographic range of C. mopane is likely to expand along the borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe in the future, particularly in the miombo plains. Conversely, suitable habitat areas reduce significantly in the eastern area of the southern African region, while the western areas expand. Overall, the appropriate habitat areas will likely decline in the 2050s under both RCPs and expand in the 2070s under the two scenarios. This knowledge is important for landscape planners and rangeland managers working to safeguard biodiversity from extinction.HighlightsHigh reliability of models in habitat suitability modelling for C. mopaneSolar radiation is the most significant variable for the current distribution of mopane.Climate change is and will reduce the habitat suitability of our target species.

The present study was carried out in Limpopo National Park (LNP) with the objective to map floristic communities that occur inside the park. Three (3) Landsat 8 satellite images were obtained by Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) tools and were pre-processed and classified, culminating in six (6) types of land use and cover. The floristic survey consisted of stratified sampling in three (3) main LNP landscapes types, namely landscape of limestone soils, landscape of rhyolite shallow soils and landscape of deep sandy soils. The final map presents 13 floristic communities identified by the names of greatest value of ecological importance (IVI) species. The community of Terminalia sericea / Combretum apiculatum / Guibourtia conjugata / Colophospermum mopane presented a larger occurrence area. Colophospermum mopane was the most representative species among the mapped communities, mostly occurring in association with other species. The overall accuracy was 74% and the Kappa index was 68%, thus giving a good rating. The mapping also showed that human occupied areas are larger than some floristic communities areas, so we suggest that these smaller communities, should be given priority actions for their conservation, especially those without human occupation. Resumo O presente estudo foi realizado no Parque Nacional do Limpopo (PNL), com o objetivo de mapear comunidades florísticas que ocorrem no parque. Foram obtidas três (3) imagens do satélite Landsat 8 com os sensores Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS), para as quais foi feito o pré-processamento e a classificação, culminando em seis (6) tipos de uso e cobertura de terra. O levantamento florístico consistiu numa amostragem estratificada por paisagem, nomeadamende paisagem de solos calcários, paisagem de solos rasos de riolito e paisagem de solos arenosos profundos. O mapa final apresenta 13 comunidades florísticas identificadas pelos nomes das espécies de maior valor de importância ecológica (VI). A comunidade de Terminalia sericea / Combretum apiculatum / Guibourtia conjugata / Colophospermum mopane apresentou maior área de ocorrência. Colophospermum mopane foi a espécie mais representativa entre as comunidades mapeadas, ocorrendo em maior parte associada com outras espécies. A exatidão global foi de 74% e o índice Kappa foi 68%, atribuindo assim um nível de boa classificação. O mapeamento também demonstrou que áreas de ocupação humana são maiores que as áreas de cobertura de algumas comunidades florísticas, deste modo sugerimos que estas comunidades menores sejam priorizadas na conservação, especialmente aquelas que não apresentam ocupação humana.

Precise vegetation descriptions and maps are essential tools for the management of natural areas, as well as for understanding animal habitat use. The Chobe Enclave (CE), adjacent to the Chobe National Park and the Chobe Forest Reserve, forms a critical dry season range for many large herbivores. As a tool for future management and studies about wildlife habitat use and migration, this study proposed to describe the plant communities in the CE and to study their relationships with microtopography and soils. Plant species were inventoried in 82 sampling plots (40 x 20 m), covering the vegetation diversity recognised by an unsupervised classification (Landsat images, 30-m resolution). A hierarchical clustering classified the inventories in eight plant communities, mapped with a supervised classification. This study was conducted in parallel with a soil study. Soil variations and degree of flooding largely determine community composition. Floodplains along the Linyanti River and dambos (concentrating local run off from rainfall) provide reliable green forage for wildlife during the dry season. Adjacent to floodplains, riverine forests also maintain green browse and grazing well into the dry season. In drylands, vegetation is largely determined by soil texture. Forests dominated by Baikiaea plurijuga occupy the acidic, red sands in the east, while sandveld vegetation grows on deep sands in paleo-river channels. These habitats support dominant grasses, which provide important forage for grazers during the wet season. Finally, woodlands dominated by Colophospermum mopane, characterised by sodium-rich and alkaline soils, enable herbivores to meet their mineral requirements during reproduction. Conservation implications: Our soil and vegetation studies provide important insights into factors determining plant communities. Their diversity and close vicinity play a critical role in enabling herbivores to adapt to seasonal variations in forage quantity and quality. Results will enable researchers to gain insights into animal habitat seasonal use in the Chobe Enclave.

Urbanization and scarce income-earning opportunities have led to increasing commercialization of non-timber forest products in southern Africa, including the nutritious mopane worm 'Imbrasia (=Gonimbrasia) belina'. The mopane worm contributes substantially to incomes and food security in households across the region, but little research has addressed its use within South Africa. Using semi-structured interviews with harvesters and resource managers, this paper compares the management of mopane worm resources under public, private, and communal governance systems to explore the ability of each to provide users with sustainable access to the resource. Results show that governance is weaker in the communal property regime compared to the public and private property regimes. Weak control over access and high demand for mopane worms in urban and rural centres may be leading to a concentration of harvesting pressures in communally managed areas, increasing competition for a resource already scarce after years of drought and land-use change.

Despite the wide distribution of the Tragelaphus strepsiceros (greater kudu) in the mopane woodland, there is still limited information on the influence of terrain on the browsing path of the great...

Introduction An area exclosure is the practice of land management that involves the exclusion of livestock and humans from openly accessing an area that is characterized by severe degradation. Area exclosures have been employed as cheap and convenient means of rehabilitating degraded forests/woodlands. A study was carried out to (i) assess the species richness, diversity and evenness; (ii) determine the densities, frequencies, dominance and importance value index; and (iii) assess the population structure and regeneration status of woody species inside and outside the fence (area exclosure) of Okavango Research Institute (ORI) located in Maun, northern Botswana. Results Thirty-five woody species were recorded inside (32 spp.) and outside (24 spp.) the ORI compound, and the population structure and regeneration status of the woody species were better inside than outside the ORI compound. The exclosure had seven times higher mean density of woody species than outside ORI, and an exceptional regeneration of seedlings was observed inside than outside the ORI compound, suggesting the process of recovery of the degraded woodland. The frequencies of more than half of the woody species also showed increment inside than outside the exclosure. The results suggest that the exclosed area is still in an initial recovery stage since it had been an open grazing area prior to the establishment of the exclosure. Most of the woody species encountered outside ORI showed hampered recruitment and regeneration, owing to different anthropogenic impacts and overgrazing by animals. Conclusions Despite the relatively short period (10 years) of exclosure establishment, results from the present study have further provided empirical evidences on the actual crucial roles played by area exclosures to increase woody species richness, diversity, evenness, density, frequency, dominance and important value index as well as enhance the population structure and regeneration of the woody species in northern Botswana. Future research is recommended focusing on comparative studies on herbaceous species richness, diversity and density, horizontal and vertical distribution of soil seed banks, species richness of soil microorganisms, plant and soil biomass, plant and soil carbon pools (above and below ground) as well as soil contents and properties inside and outside the ORI compound.

Patch dieback of Colophospermum mopane (Kirk ex Benth.) Kirk ex J. Leonard, which was attributed to drought, soil surface condition and soil chemistry has been reported in South Africa. In Botswana, dieback of C. mopane and other species were noticed in 2012 in the North east part of the country (North West of Francistown). The causes of the noticed dieback were not known. The objective of this study was to determine the status and causes of that dieback. The study was based on field survey to determine species with dieback, the percentage number of dieback affected individual plants of each species and the areas affected. A questionnaire was also administered to get views from people living in the study area on what they thought caused the dieback. Rainfall and temperature data were obtained from Department of Meteorological Services. It was found that it was not only C. mopane that was affected but even other species such as Dichrostachys cinerea, Combretum hereroense and Terminalia prunioides. It appears that low temperatures combined with soils type are the major causes of the dieback. Dieback was mostly on tree individuals on heavy clay soils than those on loamy soils. Key words: Francistown, plant dieback, vertisols, loamy soils, temperature, rainfall.

The late dry season is a period when forage resources become limited in some African savannas that can induce a strong demographic bottleneck in herbivore populations with limited access to resource heterogeneity. This study determined forage quality and quantity between wetlands and drylands habitats during the late dry season. We subjectively sampled forage characteristics in four habitat types around the distal reaches of the Tsum Tsum floodplains of the Okavango Delta during the late dry season of 2015. The habitat types were mopane and sandveld woodland far from floodplains (two major dryland habitat types), sandveld habitats that receive soil moisture inputs from adjacent floodplains (wet sandveld) and sedgeland habitat within the floodplain. Leaves collected from forage in each habitat type were oven dried, milled and analysed for total nitrogen. Data of greenness, height, biomass and protein were analysed using Kruskal-Wallis test. Forage in wet sandveld had by far the highest protein content (~16%) of all habitat types but forage height and biomass were very low, whereas sedgelands had the highest biomass of adequate-quality forage, while dryland communities had the lowest quantity and quality of forage. Thus, foraging between a higher-biomass, adequate-quality reserve resource (sedgeland) and a high-quality but low-quantity bridging resource (wet sandveld) can help to ensure a balanced protein and fibre intake during the late dry season. Our study demonstrated the importance of wetland habitats for providing green forage with sufficient biomass and protein to sustain herbivores over the late dry season.

Global climate change is gradually altering species distribution and spatial patterns of diversity. Yet, climatic factors influencing the local distribution and habitat preferences for southern African species remain largely unexplored. As such, predicting species distribution patterns and identifying environmental covariates that promote species range expansion will be critical in developing management protocols for biodiversity protection. Maxent, a species distribution model algorithm that applies a maximum entropy machine learning technique, is used in this study to map the geographical distributions of appropriate habitats for Colophospermum mopane (J.Kirk ex Benth.) J. Leonard in southern Africa under current and future climate change scenarios. We identified the highest contributors to the modelled distributions and calculated the range changes (expansion or loss) in southern Africa for C. mopane under three Representative concentration pathways (RCPs) for the 2050s and 2070s. Our results showed that the distribution of C. mopane was mainly influenced by solar radiation, annual temperature range, and annual precipitation. We also observe that C. mopane is distributed continuously in southern Africa, from southern Angola and northern Namibia to central-southern Mozambique, with a total occurrence area of 1,281,242 km2. According to the species response curves, this species preferred habitats with annual precipitation of 130–200 mm, an annual temperature range of 22–28 °C, and elevations of about 500–1000 m above sea level. Under climate change scenarios, suitable habitat areas reduced significantly in the northern limits of the potential distribution areas while they expanded in the southern limits. Overall, the appropriate habitat areas will likely expand the least (4.08–4.46%) and decline the most (8.83–10.08%) under the extreme scenario of RCP8.5, depending on the year. Although there is a lack of consensus on the range changes in future distributions among the various RCPs, it is clear that solar radiation will significantly limit the distribution of C. mopane. This knowledge is important for landscape planners and rangeland managers working to safeguard biodiversity from extinction.

Background The drought-tolerant tree species Colophospermum mopane is focussed at for an assessment of the impact of water stress, as well as for the specific adaptation potential of the species. Three differing sites (‘Forest’, ‘Shrubs’ and ‘Swamp’) under three different seasonal situations (advanced dry season, drought and early rain season), in the mopane woodland of north-eastern Namibia were studied. Methods Plant water potentials were measured using a pressure chamber in the field. Pre-dawn water potentials were assessed to reflect the soil water potential of the rhizosphere. Midday water potentials were measured to assess the strongest negative water potential by the sample trees. Results The study reveals significant differences of the water potentials indicated by C. mopane. The different site-vegetation relations specify the impacts of seasonal conditions and site conditions (soil parameters and soil water availability) on the selected species. Conclusions The investigation reveals a specific adaptation potential of C. mopane in relation to different soil parameter under seasonal conditions. The impact of the different seasons on the pre-dawn plant water potential (indicating actual soil water availability) was assessed independently of other parameters. The adaptation range of C. mopane is obviously reflected by its ability to cope with water stress situations by midday samples. An advantage of using plant-physiological characteristics as monitoring parameters is the circumstance that these reflect the plant-internal ‘digestibility’ of the evaluated conditions directly on the natural stand. In this consideration, the evaluation of specific site conditions referring to the plant-effective water deficiency and the plant-internal, physiological ability of adaptation towards these, are recommended as key-parameters, for, e.g., investigations of site-species matching for afforestation or reforestation management.

This study established the temporal determinants of human-elephant conflict in Victoria Falls town, Hwange West communal area and the resettlement areas of Don Rovin, Mubiya and Kalala. Interviews were the main instruments adopted for the study. Results indicate that, elephants which cause conflict in Hwange communal areas come from the Fuller forest concession area. During the cropping season elephants come to this area to raid food crops. The elephants stay in the Fuller forest during the day. As night falls elephants wait until it gets dark, then enter human settlements where they cause different human-elephant conflict manifestations. During the day, elephants seek refuge in the protected areas where they avoid contact with people. People in the area sleep in fields guarding crops to prevent elephants raids. During the dry season elephants come to drink water from the perrenial streams in the Hwange communal area. The riparian vegatation and fruits in the perrernial streams also attract elephants to the communal areas. Elephants are attracted to these areas during the dry season by the availability food and water. The perrenials streams sustain fruits such as savanna dwala berry, monkey finger and wild medra. Mopane and acacia vegetation which is elephants's favourite also attract elephants to this area during the dry season. The bark of mopane trees is eaten by elephants during the dry season. Elephants opportunistically raid crops from fields at the fringes of rivers when they enter the settlements. Some elephants also hide in the forest remnants and attack people during the night. It is therefore recommended that there is need for participation of all stakeholders such as scientists, elephant managers, policy makers and local communities in addressing the issues of human-elephant conflict effectively.

The hypothesis that African elephants may cause the local extirpation of selected woody species was evaluated in a medium-sized, semi-arid reserve following their reintroduction at low density. Mortality, state-change, and regeneration of 25 tree and 17 shrub species were studied between 1997 and 2010. Annual mortality of shrub species ranged from 0.2 to 8.0%, with six species experiencing 6–8%. Eight shrub species lost more than half their adult population (range 10–94%). Annual tree mortality ranged from 0.2 to 10.5%. The two dominant dryland tree species experienced 63% and stress-related agents >20% of tree deaths. The manner in which elephants induced tree death depended on species. The proportion of individuals of a species killed by pollarding or uprooting ranged from 0 to 74%, and by debarking from 0 to 100%. Complete uprooting was a common cause of death for three shrub species. Regeneration ranged from zero for six tree and one shrub species to a seedling every 7 m 2 for Colophospermum mopane and 23 m 2 for Dichrostachys cinerea in riparian habitat. Three shrub and eight tree species were identified as vulnerable to local extirpation owing to a combination of high mortality and poor regeneration that is likely to result in a considerably simplified system. Reintroduction of elephants into medium-sized reserves without regulation of their numbers may not be a desirable action.

Changes in the environment are thought to have had strong impact on human evolution. The pollen record of GeoB9311, retrieved offshore of the Zambezi River mouth, indicates glacial-interglacial changes in the vegetation of southern East Africa with enhanced forests in the coastal area during interglacials, more Afromontane forest and ericaceous bushland during glacials and an increase in mopane woodland during the transitional periods. C4 swamps, probably with papyrus, might have spread during the more humid phases of the glacial, while mangroves responded sensitively to changes in sea level. The spread of open ericaceous bushland and Afromontane forest during glacials is found for most of Southern Africa with the exception of the extreme south and southwest regions. In contrast to the western part of the continent, forest and woodland in East Africa did not completely disappear during the glacial. It seems that on a regional scale climatic perturbations of the vegetation are less severe than in West Africa.

An assessment to determine habitat selection by large mammals was carried out in South Luangwa National Park, eastern Zambia. We divided Habitat types into five groups based on physiognomic classification as: savannah wood-land, back swamp, Combretum thicket, Mopane woodland, and Terminalia-Erythrophleum. Road count method was used to sight animals across the four identified habitat types. Results showed that puku, impala, elephant, and zebra were highly selective of habitat types. Puku occurred mainly in back swamp habitat (86.6%) followed by water buck (75.0%), elephant (72.3%) and zebra (65.7%). Impala were more abundant in Terminalia-Erythrophleum woodland (69.50%) while buffalo was mainly sighted in Mopane-woodland (45.07%). Other species were more cosmopolitan. It was suggested that foraging behaviour, season and security with respect to predation were the factors singularly or collectively that influenced the observed pattern of habitat selection by large mammals.

In contrast to the exploration and use of southern African grass plant genetic resources over the past century, only a few indigenous legume species are currently used as forages, notwithstanding the vast untapped legume diversity available in southern Africa. The aim of this study was to assess legumes, indigenous to South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland and propose a list of species with pasture potential for further evaluation. Towards this end, legume species documented as being cultivated, grazed or browsed as well as plant collection data from the National Herbarium, South Africa, were used. The majority of cultivated, grazed or browsed species were recorded in the Central Bushveld, Lowveld and Mopane Bioregions, the Drakensberg Foothill and Coastal Region, Savanna Group and Northern Mistbelt leguminochoria and is largely enclosed by the Wolkberg Centre of Plant Endemism. The Phaseoleae tribe was found to contain the highest percentage of cultivated legume species. Legume species adapted to low soil phosphorus levels were identified, with 22 of these species previously noted for their pasture potential. It is suggested that the results of this study be used in the continued search for alternative indigenous legumes species for eventual integration into local and international pasture systems.Keywords: Fabaceae, fodder crops, Leguminosae, phosphorus, plant genetic resources

Rural households in South Africa are vulnerable to food and income adversity. As a result, they adopt a range of livelihoods strategies, including consumption and trade of woodland resources to improve their living standards. Mopane worms (caterpillars of the Emperor Moth Imbrasia belina) have been identified as important to rural livelihoods, as an alternative land-use option as well as in fulfilling an important food security function. Whilst mopane worms may contribute to food security, this safety-net function needs more critical and quantitative investigation. This study examined the relationship between mopane worm consumption and household’s food security in the Limpopo Province, South Africa using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) and the Tobit regression model based on a household survey of 120 respondents. The result from HFIAS showed that about 52 % of the households were severely food insecure, while others were either mildly or moderately food insecure. Only 16 % of the households were food secure. The Tobit regression model estimates show that proxy variables (i.e. income from mopane worm trade and the frequency of mopane worm consumption) measuring the contribution of mopane worms to rural household food security are statistically significant factors influencing household food insecurity in the study area. Implications for policy are discussed.

Lilian's Lovebird Agapornis lilianae is a non-excavating cavity user of mopane Colophospermum mopane woodlands. We investigated roost characteristics of Lilian's Lovebirds in Liwonde National Park, Malawi. We quantified tree and roost site variables for roost and non-roost trees. Sixty-six roosts were found. Roosts were in large tall mopane trees with a mean diameter at breast height (dbh) of 57.4 ± 1.64 cm, a mean height of 16.5 ± 0.42 m, and with a mean cavity entrance height of 10.0 ± 0.05 m. Non-roost areas had significantly smaller trees (mean dbh = 39.4 ± 1.72 cm). Human disturbance was low in both areas, but browsing of African elephant Loxodonta africana was evident by large areas of stunted mopane woodland recorded in non-roost areas. We recommend that the current Liwonde National Park vegetation map be updated to highlight areas of stunted mopane woodland unsuitable for Lilian's Lovebird roosts. The impact of elephant browsing on large mopane trees should be assessed to understand its impact on ...

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) have been identified as a key source of income for rural households. In South Africa, mopane worms (Imbrasia belina) have become an important source of food and cash income for rural people living in or near the mopane woodlands. However, the continued over-exploitation and commercialisation has implications for long term management of the mopane woodlands in the northern parts of South Africa. This study used a cross-sectional dataset collected from a survey of 120 households in Limpopo province in an effort to identify socio-economic factors influencing mopane worm commercialisation and intensity of commercialisation. The Household Commercialisation Index (HCI) and the Double Hurdle Model were used for the analysis. Result shows that about 63% of mopane worm harvested is sold within a production year which implies high level of commercialisation. The result of the Double Hurdle Model showed that gender, education, household size, quantity harvested, social capital, distance, transportation and information impact on households’ decision-making to commercialised mopane worm. Furthermore, household age, gender, education, exogenous income, price, quantity of marketable surplus, absence of institution/law and transportation are statistically significant factors influencing the intensity of mopane worm commercialisation in the study area. This therefore suggests that, in order to achieve a balance between sustainable harvesting of mopane worm and improving the livelihoods of the rural poor that depends on it for food and income, there is a need for policy makers to focus on the dynamics in household socio-economic conditions. Implications for policy were discussed.

This paper examines the relationship between socio-economic and demographic factors and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) dependency among the rural communities of the Mukwe Constituency, Kavango East Region, Namibia. The study employed interviews of households using semi-structured questionnaires and personal observations during July 2019 covering 102 respondents. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Chi-Square (X2) to test the association between socio-economic and demographic factors with NTFPs dependency. Results showed that wild-fruits, mushroom, honey-bees, mopane worms, insects, medicinal plants, wild meat, ropes, reeds, thatching grasses and devil's claw were the NTFPs prevalent in the study area. The results further showed that 71 % of the respondents were reliant on NTFPs for their diverse livelihoods. The Chi-square revealed no significant association between age, gender, marital status, number of people in the households and NTFPs dependency (P>0.05). However, a significant association was found between NTFPs reliance and occupation, number of years in the village, number of people employed in the household, highest qualification and employment status (P

Mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) are an important source of food and income for households in Northern Namibia. However, their access and availability in many areas have declined, mainly due to climate change and human activities. This has affected many households’ livelihoods, making them vulnerable to poverty and food insecurity. With these factors in mind, this study sought to identify the extent to which the availability and distribution of mopane worms are influenced in the Tsandi and Okahao constituencies. The study used structured questionnaires to collect information from households in the study area, to interview key informants, and to carry out group discussions. A total of 70 households and 6 key informants were interviewed, along with 4 focus group discussions that were carried out to elicit perceptions, and to obtain views on the availability of mopane worms, and possible causes of the decline in the study area. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while GIS was used to determine trends in vegetation cover, temperature and rainfall in the area. The rainfall trend indicates variability, with a generally declining trend. A slight increase in temperature has been observed too. Vegetation showed a browning trend in the study area, indicating declining habitats of mopane worms. The results have indicated that more women depend on mopane worms for survival, mainly as a source of income. Thus the decline in their availability greatly affects their food sources and their income diversification opportunities. Trading was found to be an important form of employment for the unemployed rural people, but with the potential to generate higher income levels that can improve their livelihoods. Moreover, despite the climatic factors, human activities seemed to indicate a greater influence on the availability of mopane worms, due to activities such as overharvesting, land clearing for agriculture and household use/fencing. Thus, there is a greater need to control the harvesting of mopane worms and to control tree cutting activities in order to reduce the impacts of climatic and non-climatic factors on their availability.

Understanding of urban residents’ preferences and dislikes for tree species and attributes is necessary to provide them with the species they most favour. Yet there is relatively little understanding of local species preferences, the reasons underlying them and how they vary with context and scale. We interviewed 1100 urban residents in eleven towns (four in Zimbabwe, four in Limpopo Province and three in the Eastern Cape of South Africa) to determine what were their favourite and least favourite tree species and the reasons for such. Fifty-nine species were listed amongst the preferred species (the four most common being Jacaranda mimosifolia (10% or respondents), Mangifera indica (10%), Adonsonia digitata (7%) and Colophospermum mopane (7%)), and 29 as disliked (the four most common being Vachellia spp, J. mimosifolia, Euphorbia spp. and Melia azedarach), with 16 in common between the two. Across the entire sample, the most common reason for preferring a particular species was that it had tasty fruits (19%), closely followed by the species evoking memories of where the respondent grew up (19%), and that it attained a large size (15%). The main reasons for disliking a species were because it was thorny (26% of responses), messy (16%), allergenic (15%), or poisonous (14%). There were no clear associations between preferences and respondent attributes, other than females being more likely to mention a disliked species than were males. There were clear intra- and inter-regional differences in the species preferred, and some of the reasons provided. There was some indication that preferred species are ones that are most apparent in the local environment but requires further investigation. The regional and inter-town differences emphasise that planting programmes should be informed by local preferences and needs, and that planting a diversity of species is likely to help match the diversity of preferences and needs.

Lilian’s Lovebird Agapornis lilianae is a small, near-threatened parrot resident in mopane Colophospermum mopane woodlands. We investigated its diet and foraging behaviour in Liwonde National Park, Malawi. We expected that Lilian’s Lovebirds would show little specialisation for a particular food source but generally feed on available seeds, fruits, flowers and other items as observed in other lovebirds. Lilian’s Lovebirds fed on 30 different plant species. Lilian’s Lovebirds were observed feeding in six habitat types in Liwonde National Park and adjacent areas during the wet season, and four in the dry season. In the wet season lovebirds (23% of observations) foraged in grassy wetland (dambo) areas the most, whilst in the dry season they foraged in grasslands with tree cover (18%) the most. In mopane woodland, foraging flock sizes differed significantly between the wet (mean = 19.8 ± 1.0 lovebirds) and dry season (mean = 33.6 ± 2.3 lovebirds). Grass seeds were lovebirds’ main food source from December to June. The nutritional analysis of preferred foods showed that grass seeds have a relatively high protein and energy content. Grass seed availability is reduced with savanna burning and so early season burning (before May–June) in areas in and outside the park is not recommended.

Top predators significantly impact ecosystem dynamics and act as important indicator species for ecosystem health. However, reliable density estimates for top predators, considered necessary for the development of management plans and ecosystem monitoring, are challenging to obtain. This study aims to establish baseline density estimates for two top predators, spotted hyena and lion, in the Okavango Delta in northern Botswana. Using calling stations, we surveyed free-ranging populations of the two species and investigated methodological variables that might influence results about distributions and densities, including habitat type, seasonality, and different types of playback sounds. Calling stations were distributed over a survey area of approximately 1,800 km2 characterized by three major habitat types: mopane woodland, floodplain and mixed acacia sandveld. Results indicate spotted hyenas were evenly distributed independent of habitat type and season throughout the survey area with an overall density estimate of 14.4 adults/100 km2. In contrast, lion distribution and density varied significantly with habitat and season. Lion density in the prey-poor mopane woodland was near zero, while in the comparatively prey-rich floodplains it was estimated at 23.1 individuals/100 km2 resulting in a weighted average density of 5.8 individuals/100 km2 across the entire study area. In testing the effect of varying playback sounds we found that both species were significantly more likely to respond to calls of conspecifics. Our results show how several methodological variables may influence density estimates and emphasize the importance of standardized calling-station survey methods to allow consistent replication of surveys and comparison of results that can be used for landscape-scale monitoring of large predator species.

Rapid ecohydrological changes in semi-arid landscapes are increasingly threatening humanity’s life-support systems and eroding many of the ecosystem services (ESs) upon which humans occupying such regions depend. Knowing which services and ecohydrological changes to be most concerned about is indispensable to maintaining the general health of such ecosystems and for developing effective ecosystem management practices. In the semi-arid regions of southwestern Zimbabwe where a large population of rural households depend on ESs extracted from the Colophospermum mopane tree, such understanding may be critical in reversing potential ES losses that may have catastrophic effects on the lives of many. We surveyed a total of 127 rural households who occupy the semi-arid landscapes of the Colophospermum mopane belt in southern Zimbabwe. We assessed the ecohydrological conditions characterising ecosystems where they obtain ES provisioning goods using a number of ecohydrological variables commonly cited in the literature on ecohydrology. Building on principal component analysis (PCA), we employed a hierarchical agglomerative clustering method to create unique clusters of households that depicted different levels of risks or threats associated with their ES provisioning harvesting practices. Multiple regression analysis was further performed to identify significant ecohydrological cluster-defining variables. Our results showed that spatial differences in ecohydrological parameters resulted in four distinct ES resource thresholds depicting four categories of risks that households face in extracting such resources in nearby landscapes. We concluded by proposing a number of landscape restoration or management practices targeted at reversing potential ES losses and subsequently safeguarding the livelihoods of many who depend on ESs.

In South Africa, non-timber forest products, especially mopane worms (Imbrasia belina) have become an important source of food and cash income for rural people living in or near the mopane woodlands. However, the continued harvesting has implications for long term management of the mopane woodlands in the northern parts of South Africa. In order to keep a balance between mopane worm harvesting and biodiversity, an understanding of socio-economic factors influencing the harvest at household level is vital to reducing depletion and overexploitation of the mopane woodland resources. This study evaluated the socio-economic factors influencing mopane worm harvesting decisions in rural households in Limpopo Province, South Africa using a binary logistic regression model based on a household survey of 120 respondents. Age, gender, education, income from mopane worm sales, social capital (group affiliation), household size, lack of institution/law to regulate use, distance to the nearest harvesting site, and regional locations were statistically significant factors influencing household mopane worm harvest decisions. Implications for policy are discussed.

Non timber forest products such as Imbrasia belina (mopane worms) provide a wide range of benefits to the rural dwellers in the semi-arid areas of South East Lowveld of Zimbabwe. Rules and regulations governing mopane worm use and access in the study area that comprised of a communal area, resettlement area, small-scale farms and a national game park and the relationship of these rules to harvesting of mopane worms were analysed using questionnaire, observational studies and one way analysis of variance (ANOVA).This paper examines the extent to which access to non-timber forest products especially the harvesting of mopane worms is governed by the existence of institutional arrangements and common property management regimes. The results of the study indicated that possession of a permit is a pre-requisite requirement to harvest timber and non-timber forest products in Gonarezhou National park. Harvesters in Mwenezi resettlement areas and Chikombedzi communal area indicated that rules for mopane worm harvesting were either weak or non-existent. In Gonakudzingwa Small Scale Farms, harvesters had to seek permission from the farm owner before any harvesting of mopane worms could take place. The results from the study showed that there were significant differences in the quantity of mopane worms harvested between Gonarezhou National Park and Chikombedzi Communal Area (p = 0.036), Gonakudzingwa Small Scale Commercial Farms and Chikombedzi Communal Area (p = 0.001), Mwenezi Resettlement Area and Chikombedzi Communal Area (p = 0.001). However, there were no differences between the Gonarezhou National Park, Gonakudzingwa Small Scale Commercial Farms and Mwenezi Resettlement Area. Findings of this study suggest the need for adaptive local management systems that enhance sustainable use of the resource and at the same time regulates the harvesting and the market structure of non-timber forest products. Key words: Imbrasia belina, mopane worm, harvesting, tenure regime, access; non-timber forest products.

This study classified the vegetation of the Savuti-Mababe-Linyanti ecosystem (SMLE), northern Botswana and developed a detailed map that provides a reliable habitat template of the SMLE for future wildlife habitat use studies. The major vegetation units of the SMLE were determined from satellite imagery and field visits and then mapped using Landsat 8 and RapidEye imagery and maximum likelihood classifier. These units were sampled using 40 m x 20 m (800 m²) plots in which the coverage of all plant species was estimated. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMS) demonstrated that plant communities were determined by gradients in soil texture or fertility and wetness. NMS 1 represented a gradient of soil texture with seven woodland communities on sandy soils (sandveld communities and Baikiaea forest) dominated by Baikiaea plurijuga in Baikiaea forest and Terminalia sericea and Philenoptera nelsii in sandveld, with various indicator species differentiating the various sandveld community types. Mopane woodland further from and riparian woodland adjacent to permanent water was common on less sandy alluvial soils. Mineral-rich, heavy clay soils in the sump of a large paleolake system support open grassland and mixed Senegalia/Vachellia (Acacia) savanna, with the mineral-rich soils supporting grasses high in minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, sodium and potassium, and thus this region is a critical wet season range for migratory zebra. Taller, high-quality grasses in the mosaic of sandveld and mopane woodland communities provide critical grazing for taller grass grazers such as buffalo, roan and sable antelope, whereas wetland communities provide reliable green forage during the dry season for a variety of herbivores, including elephant. This study has demonstrated how large-scale environmental gradients determine functional habitat heterogeneity for wildlife.Conservation implications: Our study demonstrated that the functionality of protected areas is determined by large-scale environmental gradients. Thus conservation science must aim to ensure that protected areas cover the full range of key environmental gradients in a region (soil texture and wetness in our study). Our habitat map provides a data base for wildlife habitat use studies in the region.

For most of the year, Meyer’s parrots in the Okavango Delta do not form large feeding flocks, and groups larger than two or three are probably the result of opportunistic aggregation at favoured food items after dispersion from communal roosts. Communal roosting likely does not facilitate flocking unless the food resources are close to the roost site, but may function in anti-predator defence. Meyer’s parrots appear to be dependent on riverine forest, Acacia-Combretum marginal woodland and mopane woodland for roost sites in the Okavango Delta. They aggregated more during the breeding season due to their specialist nutritional requirements, and female dependence on food provisioning by the male parrots. Meyer’s parrots may be sedentary in the Okavango Delta, but the possibility of limited local movements in other areas (especially the Zimbabwean highlands) should be investigated.Key words: Meyer’s parrot, Okavango Delta, communal roost, flocking dynamics.

Environmental heterogeneity across savanna landscapes, including different seasonal resources at different distances to water, may play a critical role in maintaining the size and diversity of wildlife populations and the sustainability of their resource base. We investigated whether extensive landscapes with functionally diverse seasonal resources and large waterless regions can mediate the effect of herbivory on plant composition, structure and diversity. Vegetation composition, structure and richness in two different vegetation types (mopane and sandveld woodland) at three distance zones (0 km – 5 km, 10 km – 15 km and > 20 km) from the permanent water of the Okavango Delta and Linyanti Swamps were surveyed. We modelled vegetation response of the most abundant species to herbivory in relation to distance from permanent water, and included fire frequency as a covariate. Trees favoured by elephants during the dry season occurred typically as immature, pollarded populations within 5 km of permanent water sources while mature tall populations of these species were found far from water (> 10 km – 15 km). Similarly, short high-quality grazing grasses were higher in abundance within 5 km of permanent water, whereas taller high-quality perennial grasses peaked in abundance beyond 20 km from permanent water. Trends in herbaceous richness with distance from water were contingent upon vegetation type, while tree richness did not change with distance from water. Spatial refuges in waterless regions of landscapes facilitate the creation of heterogeneity of vegetation structure, composition and richness by large herds of mammalian herbivores. Therefore, the extension of herbivore dry season foraging range, for example, by the creation of artificial water points (AWP) in backcountry woodlands, could seriously undermine the resilience of landscapes to herbivory by reducing the availability of spatial refuges. Consequently, it reduces the resilience of herbivore and predator populations that depend on these spatial refuges. We strongly advise that future scientific work, and management and policy actions should be focused on the identification and sustaining of these spatial refuges in wildlife areas.Conservation implications: Management and policy actions should be focused on the identification and sustainability of spatial refuges in wildlife areas. Too many AWP in backcountry woodlands could undermine the resilience of landscapes to herbivory by reducing the proportion of landscapes beyond 15 km from permanent water.

A study on the influence of soil drainage and elephant damage on the abundance and structure of Colophospermum mopane was carried out in Central Mana Pools National Park (MPNP) Zimbabwe. Data were collected in April- May 2013. The stratified random sampling method was employed. The study area was stratified according to soil drainage. Three strata were established namely; well drained, moderately drained and poorly drained soils. Ten plots were sampled in each strata and a total of 30 plots were sampled to determine the abundance and structure of C. mopane in Central MPNP. Results from One way ANOVA showed significant differences in tree height, basal area, tree canopy volume, shrub canopy volume, sapling density, tree density, number of stems per tree and damaged trees density (PA‹Â‚0.05). There was no significant difference in the number of dead trees across the three strata (PA‹Âƒ0.05). Moderately drained soil had the highest number of undamaged trees (n=91; 42%), saplings and stems per tree. Well drained soils had the highest number of damaged live trees (n=112; 51%) and poorly drained soils had the highest number of dead trees (n=60; 51%). There were significant differences in damage (PA‹Â‚0.001). Regression analysis showed a negative relationship between elephant density and damaged trees density (R2=0.03; PA‹Âƒ0.05), however, there was a positive relationship between elephant density and dead trees (R2=0.3865; PA‹Â‚0.05). Results from this study suggest that soil properties as well as elephant damage have an influence on the abundance and structure of C. mopane, therefore the need for constant monitoring of this tree species.

Elephant populations at high density commonly transform their habitat, but a low density population would not be expected to have a marked impact. Re-introduction of elephants into the Venetia-Limpopo Nature Reserve (320 km2) in the early 1990s established a low density population for the period of survey (0.16–0.33 individuals km−2). Accordingly, their impact on the composition and structure of the woody vegetation of three riparian and nine dryland vegetation types was measured between 1997 and 2010 using 148 permanent transects. Riparian habitat showed a greater change in composition and diversity, and also a greater decline of species richness, density of tall trees or total basal area, than dryland habitat. Change of dryland Commiphora Woodland was comparable to changes of riparian types. These conspicuous changes were a consequence primarily of severe use by elephants. Some species within these vegetation types declined markedly in abundance. Vegetation types dominated by Colophospermum mopane showed an increase in total basal area and relatively minor change in composition or structure, resulting mainly from the impact of moisture stress. Vegetation types that were severely impacted by elephants constituted 70% of area. Some uncommon, selected dryland species were heavily impacted by elephants. A number of species may therefore be trending toward local extirpation. It was concluded that the coexistence of elephants and some plant species in this medium-sized, contained reserve was not possible.

Lilian’s Lovebird Agapornis lilianae is regarded as a mopane Colophospermum mopane woodland specialist. Its global population is sparse and is spread along the Zambezi valley with little known about its current distribution and status. We explored the current distribution of Lilian’s Lovebird in Malawi, and in particular focused on the distribution and habitat associations of the largest resident population in Liwonde National Park (LNP). Local birders and tourist guides provided distribution information from across Malawi. Transect walks were conducted to collect data in LNP. Five new atlas records are reported; three were within 40–56 km of the LNP population and two were over 150 km south and north of LNP, respectively. One of the sites is about 66 km from the Lilian’s Lovebird population in Luangwa Valley, Zambia. New national records were evidence of the importance of seasonal movements to the species. Lilian’s Lovebirds occurred throughout LNP with the highest abundance in the central section. Seasonal movements to areas outside the park were also recorded. A variety of vegetation types were used by the lovebirds, but the strongest habitat associations were with seasonally wet grasslands and not mopane woodlands as would be expected. Thus, conservation efforts should also include these other habitats. Keywords Agapornis lilianae , distribution, habitat association, Lilian’s Lovebird, mopane woodland OSTRICH 2014, 85(3): 267–272

This paper provides a review of the existing literature on the significance of mopane wood and non-wood products to rural people's livelihoods, especially those in northern South Africa, southern Zimbabwe and eastern Botswana. Most rural dwellers in mopane areas are poor and therefore make wide use of mopane products for subsistence and commercial purposes. Mopane wood is primarily used for firewood, while the poles are used for the construction of traditional structures. A household of 7 to 8 people uses on average 7.8 kg of mopane firewood for cooking one meal per day, or 2.8 tonnes per year, while a mean volume of 1.22 m3 to 1.86 m3 of poles is required for the construction of a traditional hut. Villagers also harvest the larvae of the moth Imbrasia belina (mopane worms) in order to supplement their diet. Dry mopane worms are nutritious, containing protein levels of up to 65% and an energy concentration of 543 Kcal/100g. Mopane worms are also traded to generate income and its trade provides a good economic return. This paper shows that the consumption of and trade in mopane products contribute significantly to rural people's livelihoods. One challenge is that information on the importance of mopane products in sustaining rural people's livelihoods is limited, old and scanty, hence the value of this review. To address the problem, this paper aims to contribute to a better understanding of the value of mopane products to rural people's wellbeing, and also stimulate the need to sustainably manage mopane into the future.

1. The Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) dominates vast areas of sub-saharan Africa, as here in the Kaokoveld. The shade it provides is used by animals and plants, including Ledebouria. Photo by T. Harvey. Namibia is a country with great diversity in both flora and fauna, and it is a land of friendly and welcoming people; a place where one can go to get away from the busyness of urban living and get back to nature. It is for these reasons that many people around the globe flock to Namibia every year, with some making it their permanent home and it is here that researchers continue to find new and exciting plant species, such as Aloe, Euphorbia and Commiphora. With an area of 318,695 sq miles (825,418 sq km) and a population of 2.3 million—compare that to Los Angeles, CA, USA with a population of 3.8 million and 503 sq miles (1,302 sq km)— it is no wonder that many wonderful plant species await discovery, especially ones of a small stature like Ledebouria.

Aim: The Okavango Delta at Seronga is fragmented into different land uses ranging from grasslands to woodland (Ximenia and mopane), often punctuated w ith cropped and fallow fields.The influence of land uses o n surface (A1 horizon) soil physico -characteristics, nitrogen, sulphur, carbon, microbial population and biomass were studied to understand soil variability in order to devise conservation strategies for the area. Methodology: Total soil nitrogen (N) was analysed using a Leco N analyser, total carbon +

Colophospermum mopane woodland covers large areas of dry lowland savanna in southeastern Africa. Dominant land usage is conservation (45%) with the remainder mostly modified by farming. Dung beetle responses to environment (dung type, habitat, weather) and land usage (conservation, farming, mining) were examined at Phalaborwa (23.9431°S 31.1411°E) in the Phalaborwa-Timbavati Mopaneveld, South Africa. Partitioning of gamma species richness and diversity showed lower alpha values in mine areas than in farm and conserved areas. However, between-land usage differences in species richness, alpha diversity, abundance and biomass, showed lower significance than those between dung type and different weather. At two sampling scales, three multivariate techniques variously separated assemblages according to land usage, dung type and weather. Analysis of 21 mean samples separated clusters according to dung type (Canonical Correspondence Analysis, CCA) or mine assemblages, conserved plus farm assemblages on pig plus elephant, or cattle dung (NMDS, Factor Analysis) with shared variance of >80% and unique variance of 16–18% per cluster. In analysis of 188 samples (CCA), each overlapping dung type cluster was offset in ordinal space with congruent patterns of separation according to land usage and weather (drier days distant from moister days; conserved plus farm areas distant from early succession mine areas, which were distant from disturbed and later succession mine areas). Mining, dung types, and moist conditions were the strongest contributors to between-assemblage differences. Compared with conserved areas, dung beetle diversity is appreciably altered by mining but only slightly altered by intensive game farming or livestock ranching with subsistence agriculture.

The Southern Ground-Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri (SGH) is regarded as Vulnerable globally and Endangered in South Africa as a result of losing close to 70% of its range and 50% of its historic population in the country. One of the conservation tools being used to address this issue and restore the population to its historic range is reintroductions. The aim of this study was to identify and prioritise probable reintroduction sites in the Mopane Bioregion and the Limpopo and Mpumalanga sections of the Lowveld Bioregion of South Africa (all in the Savanna Biome), by using a niche-based modelling technique (Maxent) combined with GIS analyses. Suitable SGH habitat was determined for farms in the study area and evaluated for the absence of mappable threats. Three priority areas were identified for reintroductions. These areas are in a near-natural state, offer sufficient habitat, are free of mappable threats and are close to formally protected areas. Field surveys of these three priority areas are needed next...

The roles of the Uukwaluudhi Traditional Authority (UTA) and government institutions were assessed in the sustainable harvesting of the mopane worm Imbrasia (=Gonimbrasia) belina and in marketing this food item in northern Namibia. There has been a shift from harvesting mopane worms for subsistence to trading them in both rural and urban markets. The increasing importance of the mopane worms in the urban diet has caused overexploitation of the insect. Unless this common property food resource is managed in a sustainable manner, there could be very low populations and market failure for the crop. It is recommended that the government improves the property rights and institutional arrangements that govern the use of mopane worms by supporting communities to establish indigenous natural resource management systems.

Questions Early bioclimatic models predict that climate change in southern African savannas will cause a huge southward and westward range shift of the savanna tree Colophospermum mopane (Kirk ex Benth.) Kirk ex J.Leon. C. mopane is an economically and ecologically important subtropical savanna tree that forms mono-dominant stands across 30% of southern African savannas. We investigate the validity of these initial range expansion predictions to answer the following questions: what are the regional-scale drivers of the distribution of C. mopane in southern African savannas; and what are the landscape-scale distribution patterns of this species? Location Central Lowveld, Kruger National Park, South Africa. Methods We investigate the validity of very early range expansion modelling predictions using a regional-scale, climate envelope niche model, and fine-scale field mapping of the current boundary, to understand which environmental variables may determine the distribution limit of this signature species. Results Our findings indicate that both non-climatic (dry season day length) and climatic (minimum temperatures) variables limit the regional distribution of C. mopane. At the landscape scale, the distribution of this species is restricted to the warmer parts of the landscape, suggesting minimum temperature appears to be the primary factor determining its landscape-scale distribution. Conclusions This study provides the first detailed model of environmental factors that may limit the regional distribution of C. mopane, and allows us to formulate testable hypotheses regarding the determinants of the range of a keystone species.

Monitoring abundance of threatened species is important for conservation planning. Lilian’s Lovebird Agapornis lilianae is a near-threatened small parrot found in mopane Colophospermum mopane woodland. Its population has not been investigated in any part of its range. We investigated the abundance and density of the Lilian’s Lovebird in Liwonde National Park, Malawi. Both distance sampling (line and point transects) methods and total counts (waterhole and flyway counts) were applied. The point count method gave very low numbers and was discontinued after the first year. Line transects conducted during the wet season had the highest density estimates of 17 ± 4.8 lovebirds km−2 of mopane woodland. However, number of observations per transect in each year were low. Waterhole counts had the lowest density estimates (10 ± 3.5 lovebirds km−2). Flyway counts gave an intermediate estimate (13 ± 3.0 lovebirds km−2). The total population of Lilian’s Lovebirds in Liwonde National Park is therefore estimated to be about 4 000 individuals. The use of line transect counts at the end of the rainy season is recommended for continued monitoring of Lilian’s Lovebirds abundance in Liwonde National Park.Keywords: abundance, lovebird, parrot, point and transect counts, population estimate, waterhole and flyway counts

Within the framework of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA), the purpose of this study was to produce a classification of the woody vegetation of the Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe, and a map of its potential distribution. Cover-abundance data of woody species were collected in 330 georeferenced relevés across the Park. These data were used to produce two matrices: the first one using the cover-abundance values as collected in five height layers and the second one based on merging the layers into a single cover value for each species. Automatic classifications were produced for both matrices to determine the optimal number of vegetation types. The two classification approaches both produced 14 types belonging to three macro-groups: mopane, miombo and alluvial woodlands. The results of the two classifications were compared looking at the constant, dominant and diagnostic species of each type. The classification based on separate layers was considered more effective and retained. A high-resolution map of the potential distribution of vegetation types for the whole study area was produced using Random Forest. In the model, the relationship between bioclimatic and topographic variables, known to be correlated to vegetation types, and the classified relevés was used. Identified vegetation types were compared with those of other national parks within the GLTFCA, and an evaluation of the main threats and pressures was conducted.Conservation implications: Vegetation classification and mapping are useful tools for multiple purposes including: surveying and monitoring plant and animal populations, communities and their habitats, and development of management and conservation strategies. Filling the knowledge gap for the Gonarezhou National Park provides a basis for standardised and homogeneous vegetation classification and mapping for the entire Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area.