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Key Points:  AUV mapping along the north rift identifies hummocky mounds with pillows, channelized, and inflated flows formed during the 2015 eruption.  Impulsive sounds formed by lava/seawater interaction track mound growth over a 28 day period with an average extrusion rate of 22-45 m3s-1.  The sounds record the history of flow advancement and inflation from multiple eruptive centers, and is used to infer volcanic activity style. Quantifying eruption dynamics in submarine environments is challenging. During the 2015 eruption of Axial Seamount, the formation of hummocky mounds along the north rift was accompanied by tens‐of‐thousands of impulsive acoustic signals generated by the interaction of lava and seawater. A catalog of these sounds was integrated with detailed seafloor mapping to better understand eruptive processes in time and space. Mounds grew over a period of 28 days with average extrusion rates of 22 to 45 m3s‐1. The most distant mounds, ~ 9.5 to 15.5 km down rift from the caldera, grew primarily over the first few days of the eruption. The focus of eruptive activity then retreated ~5 km toward the caldera where it was sustained. Mounds are constructed as a series of superimposed lobes formed through alternating periods of flow inflation, generating up to 30‐m‐thick hummocks, and periods of flow advancement, with

West Mata is a 1200 m deep submarine volcano where explosive boninite eruptions were observed in 2009. The acoustic signatures from the volcano's summit eruptive vents Hades and Prometheus were recorded with an in situ (~25 m range) hydrophone during ROV dives in May 2009 and with local (~5 km range) moored hydrophones between December 2009 and August 2011. The sensors recorded low frequency (1–40 Hz), short duration explosions consistent with magma bubble bursts from Hades, and broadband, 1–5 min duration signals associated with episodes of fragmentation degassing from Prometheus. Long-term eruptive degassing signals, recorded through May 2010, preceded a several month period of declining activity. Degassing episodes were not recorded acoustically after early 2011, although quieter effusive eruption activity may have continued. Synchronous optical measurements of turbidity made between December 2009 and April 2010 indicate that turbidity maxima resulted from occasional south flank slope failures triggered by the collapse of accumulated debris during eruption intervals.

Submarine landslides are an important process in volcano growth yet are rarely observed and poorly understood. We show that landslides occur frequently in association with the eruption of West Mata volcano in the NE Lau Basin. These events are identifiable in hydroacoustic data recorded between ~5 and 20 km from the volcano and may be recognized in spectrograms by the weak and strong powers at specific frequencies generated by multipathing of sound waves. The summation of direct and surface-reflected arrivals causes interference patterns in the spectrum that change with time as the landslide propagates. Observed frequencies are consistent with propagation down the volcano's north flank in an area known to have experienced mass wasting in the past. These data allow us to estimate the distance traveled by West Mata landslides and show that they travel at average speeds of ~10–25 m/s.

In late 2007, two massive icebergs, C19a and B15a, drifted into open water and slowly disintegrated in the southernmost Pacific Ocean. Archived acoustic records show that the high-intensity underwater sounds accompanying this breakup increased ocean noise levels at mid-to-equatorial latitudes over a period of ∼1.5 years. More typically, seasonal variations in ocean noise, which are characterized by austral summer-highs and winter-lows, appear to be modulated by the annual cycle of Antarctic iceberg drift and subsequent disintegration. This seasonal pattern is observed in all three Oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. The life cycle of Antarctic icebergs affects not only marine ecosystem but also the sound environment in far-reaching areas and must be accounted for in any effort to isolate anthropogenic or climate-induced noise contributions to the ocean soundscape.

The island of Crete occupies a forearc high in the central Hellenic subduction zone and is characterized by sustained exhumation, surface uplift and extension. The processes governing orogenesis and topographic development here remain poorly understood. Dramatic topographic relief ( 2 – 6 km ) astride the southern coastline of Crete is associated with large margin-parallel faults responsible for deep bathymetric depressions known as the Hellenic troughs. These structures have been interpreted as both active and inactive with either contractional, strike-slip, or extensional movement histories. Distinguishing between these different structural styles and kinematic histories here allows us to explore more general models for improving our global understanding of the tectonic and geodynamic processes of syn-convergent extension. We present new observations from the south–central coastline of Crete that clarifies the role of these faults in the late Cenozoic evolution of the central Hellenic margin and the processes controlling Quaternary surface uplift. Pleistocene marine terraces are used in conjunction with optically stimulated luminesce dating and correlation to the Quaternary eustatic curve to document coastal uplift and identify active faults. Two south-dipping normal faults are observed, which extend offshore, offset these marine terrace deposits and indicate active N–S (margin-normal) extension. Further, marine terraces preserved in the footwall and hanging wall of both faults demonstrate that regional net uplift of Crete is occurring despite active extension. Field mapping and geometric reconstructions of an active onshore normal fault reveal that the subaqueous range-front fault of south–central Crete is synthetic to the south-dipping normal faults on shore. These findings are inconsistent with models of active horizontal shortening in the upper crust of the Hellenic forearc. Rather, they are consistent with topographic growth of the forearc in a viscous orogenic wedge, where crustal thickening and uplift are a result of basal underplating of material that is accompanied by extension in the upper portions of the wedge. Within this framework a new conceptual model is presented for the late Cenozoic vertical tectonics of the Hellenic forearc.

A network of autonomous underwater hydrophones is used to monitor acoustic activity associated with Hunga Ha'apai-Hunga Tonga volcano during a period of 15 months. The data provide a continuous record spanning a surtseyan eruption (VEI 2) in March of 2009, which input ~ 10 13 J of acoustic energy into the ocean soundscape. In the months before the eruption, the volcano can be identified as an intermittent source of ambient noise. The period of seismic unrest that precedes the eruption begins at 15:11 UTC on 16 March (04:11 LT on 17 March), approximately 7 h before the first satellite confirmation of eruptive activity and 14 h before the first eyewitness reports. The initial seismic activity, which includes a single 4.8 m b event at 15:25, evolves as a typical foreshock–mainshock–aftershock sequence. By 15:38, however, the rate of small earthquakes begins to increase, marking the onset of the seismic swarm. The period of highest-amplitude acoustic energy release between 16:40 and ~ 17:10 is interpreted to mark the opening of the volcanic conduit. By 19:00 on 16 March, the acoustic signature of the volcano is marked by a continuous wide-band (1–20 Hz) noise and a set of transient very-broadband (1–125 Hz) explosion signals. This activity is characteristic of the main surtseyan phase of the eruption. Both the intensity of explosions and the amplitude of the lower frequency wide-band noise decay through time, and eruptive activity likely ends at ~ 09:00 on 19 March, ~ 2.7 days after the initiation of seismic activity. At this time the continuous low frequency noise decays to near background levels and signal coherence drops suddenly. Low-level acoustic unrest persists through June of 2009, after which the volcano becomes acoustically dormant during the remaining ten months of monitoring. The analysis of volcano-acoustic signals associated with Hunga Ha'apai-Hunga Tonga volcano highlights the potential role of regional hydroacoustic monitoring in assessing volcanic hazards in arc settings.

To mitigate saltwater flooding, the waterfront and downtown areas of Port Angeles, Washington were built-up with up to 8 m of anthropogenic fill beginning in 1913. Shoreline modification continued into the present as this important natural deep-water harbour along the Strait of Juan de Fuca was developed for maritime industries. This and other historical activities obscured at least two historically occupied villages and burial sites of the indigenous Coast Salish Klallam people. Since these archaeological sites remain buried beneath the modern Port Angeles waterfront knowledge of the distribution of buried landforms, coastal zone processes, and estimates of site preservation and modern disturbance potential is needed for archaeological identification and preservation efforts. We created a model of the fill thickness by combining data from: (i) field observations, where the thickness of the fill could be observed directly in the landscape; (ii) topographic differences between pre-fill sounding maps and present-day LIDAR-determined elevations; and (iii) ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys. The GPR surveys also helped to reconstruct the now buried palaeoenvironment by identifying tidal lagoons, beach berms and stream channel features beneath the fill layer. The history of post-glacial sea-level change, here impacted by global eustasy, glacio-isostatic and tectonic factors is the first control on the development of quasi-stable coastal landforms suitable for long-term human occupation. Knowledge of past landscapes is a critical component in the development of future archaeological site catchment ‘predictive’ models based upon the spatial distribution and stability of landforms and resource accessibility prior to the Euro-American historic period of intensive shoreline modification. The geophysical and geomorphic identification and spatial reconstruction of buried landforms also provides needed insight into the geology of the subsurface and its control on the flow of groundwater and contaminants across the nearshore environment. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Multichannel seismic observations provide the first direct images of crustal scale normal faults within the Juan de Fuca plate system and indicate that brittle deformation extends up to ~ 200 km seaward of the Cascadia trench. Within the sedimentary layering steeply dipping faults are identified by stratigraphic offsets, with maximum throws of 110 ± 10 m found near the trench. Fault throws diminish both upsection and seaward from the trench. Long-term throw rates are estimated to be 13 ± 2 mm/kyr. Faulted offsets within the sedimentary layering are typically linked to larger offset scarps in the basement topography, suggesting reactivation of the normal fault systems formed at the spreading center. Imaged reflections within the gabbroic igneous crust indicate swallowing fault dips at depth. These reflections require local alteration to produce an impedance contrast, indicating that the imaged fault structures provide pathways for fluid transport and hydration. As the depth extent of imaged faulting within this young and sediment insulated oceanic plate is primarily limited to approximately Moho depths, fault-controlled hydration appears to be largely restricted to crustal levels. If dehydration embrittlement is an important mechanism for triggering intermediate-depth earthquakes within the subducting slab, then the limited occurrence rate and magnitude of intraslab seismicity at the Cascadia margin may in part be explained by the limited amount of water imbedded into the uppermost oceanic mantle prior to subduction. The distribution of submarine earthquakes within the Juan de Fuca plate system indicates that propagator wake areas are likely to be more faulted and therefore more hydrated than other parts of this plate system. However, being largely restricted to crustal levels, this localized increase in hydration generally does not appear to have a measurable effect on the intraslab seismicity along most of the subducted propagator wakes at the Cascadia margin.

International audience; This paper presents the results from the Deflo-hydroacoustic experiment in the Southern Indian Ocean using three autonomous underwater hydrophones, complemented by two permanent hydroacoustic stations. The array monitored for 14 months, from November 2006 to December 2007, a 3000 x 3000 km wide area, encompassing large segments of the three Indian spreading ridges that meet at the Indian Triple Junction. A catalogue of 11 105 acoustic events is derived from the recorded data, of which 55 per cent are located from three hydrophones, 38 per cent from 4, 6 per cent from five and less than 1 per cent by six hydrophones. From a comparison with land-based seismic catalogues, the smallest detected earthquakes are m(b) 2.6 in size, the range of recorded magnitudes is about twice that of land-based networks and the number of detected events is 5-16 times larger. Seismicity patterns vary between the three spreading ridges, with activity mainly focused on transform faults along the fast spreading Southeast Indian Ridge and more evenly distributed along spreading segments and transforms on the slow spreading Central and ultra-slow spreading Southwest Indian ridges; the Central Indian Ridge is the most active of the three with an average of 1.9 events/100 km/month. Along the Sunda Trench, acoustic events mostly radiate from the inner wall of the trench and show a 200-km-long seismic gap between 2 degrees S and the Equator. The array also detected more than 3600 cryogenic events, with different seasonal trends observed for events from the Antarctic margin, compared to those from drifting icebergs at lower (up to 50 degrees S) latitudes. Vocalizations of five species and subspecies of large baleen whales were also observed and exhibit clear seasonal variability. On the three autonomous hydrophones, whale vocalizations dominate sound levels in the 20-30 and 100 Hz frequency bands, whereas earthquakes and ice tremor are a dominant source of ambient sound at frequencies < 20 Hz.

Within the era of modern digital-recording, the December 26th 2004 Sumatra–Andaman Earthquake represents an event of unprecedented scale. Hydroacoustic observations have made significant contributions toward our understanding of this great rupture and serve to reiterate the potential use of tertiary (T) waves as a tool in tsunami warning. Small-aperture arrays of hydrophones operated by the International Monitoring System (IMS) recorded the seismically generated, water-borne T-wave within the Indian Ocean. Due to the velocity structure of the oceanic water column, T-wave propagation is both slower and more efficient than radiation within the solid earth. This results in a relatively large amplitude signal that arrives within a time window distinct from the more complex and overlapping pattern of solid earth seismic phases. Hydroacoustic analysis has constrained the rupture length of the fault to be ~1,200 km and the duration on the order of 8 min, with 2–3 phases exhibiting progressively decreasing rupture velocity. These data also indicate that aftershock rates in the first hours following the mainshock correlate with spatial variability in the sourced T-wave amplitude, with far fewer events along the northern section of the main rupture. Although IMS stations telemeter data in near real time, data access for scientists was restricted due to the provisions of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. The swift dissemination of data will be critical in using hydroacoustic methods to assess the magnitude and tsunamigenic potential of future events.

Flexure-induced fractures are predicted to form along the axis of maximum tensile stress within a bending brittle plate. The mechanics of this process differ from extensional fault growth in response to lithosphere stretching, where a distributed set of simultaneously growing fractures evolves through elastic interaction. To simulate extensional fault growth during lithospheric flexure, partially solidified plaster layers resting on a foam rubber substrate were depressed by a linear load and fractured in analogue models. The length- and spacing-frequency distributions of the resulting crack populations were analyzed for a series of nine thin (5 mm) and ten thick (15 mm) layer experiments. Previous analogue stretching models predict power-law length-frequency distributions and clustered spacings ( C v > 1) at low strains ( C v

On 26 December 2004, one of the largest recorded earthquakes occurred, triggering a devastating tsunami that killed an estimated 300,000 people. The event was initially classified as Mw 9.0 based on the analysis of seismic body and surface waves (Nettles and Ekstrom, 2004; Ji, 2005; Park et al. , 2005). Classical methods of magnitude calculation are hampered by the long duration of the event, however, since late-arriving phases from the earliest portion of the rupture may obscure first-arriving energy sourced from other portions of the rupture. This same phenomenon also limits our ability to constrain the earthquake's duration, length, and speed of propagation. To work around these limitations, Stein and Okal (2005) studied Earth's low-order normal modes to estimate the size of the earthquake. Their results indicated a moment of 1.3 × 1030 dyne-cm ( Mw 9.3), which is ∼2.5 times larger than initial reports, and a centroid position near 7°N. In contrast with previous analyses, which had suggested displacement occurred primarily along the southern third of the aftershock region (Ji, 2005; Yagi, 2005; Yamanaka, 2005), these results argue that significant slip occurred along the entire aftershock zone. For shallow submarine earthquakes, hydroacoustic recordings of tertiary ( T ) waves can provide additional constraints on rupture length, as well as velocity and direction of rupture propagation ( e.g. , Bohnenstiehl et al. , 2004). T waves are formed when seismically generated energy is scattered at the seafloor-ocean interface and becomes trapped in the ocean's low-velocity wave guide, which is known as the SOund Fixing And Ranging (SOFAR) channel (Tolstoy and Ewing, 1950). Locating the source of a T wave, therefore, does not necessarily provide an estimate of the earthquake epicenter, but rather the position of the T -wave radiator. This is particularly true for the subduction zone …

Since 1999 six Sound Fixing and Ranging (SOFAR) hydrophones have been moored along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) (15-35 N). These hydrophones (8-bit data resolution) are designed for long-term monitoring of MAR seismicity using the acoustic T waves of seafloor earthquakes. The completeness level of the MAR T- wave earthquake catalog estimated from size-frequency constraints is mb 3.0, a significant improvement in detection compared to the mb 4.6 completeness level estimated from National Earthquake Information Center magnitude-frequency data. The hydrophones also detect the acoustic phase of converted upper mantle P arrivals from regional earthquakes at epicentral distances of 374-1771 km and from events as small as mb 3.6. These regional P waves are used to estimate a Pn velocity of 8.0 0.1 km sec 1 along the east and west MAR flanks. An unexpected result was the identification of P arrivals from earthquakes outside the Atlantic Ocean basin. The hydrophones detected P waves from global earthquakes with magnitudes of 5.8-8.3 at epicentral distances ranging from 29.6 to 167.2. Examination of travel times suggests these teleseismic P waves constitute the suite of body-wave arrivals from direct mantle P to outer- and inner-core reflected/refracted phases. The amplitudes of the teleseismic P waves also exhibit the typical solid-earth wave field phenomena of a P shadow zone and caustic at D 144. These instruments offer a long-term, relatively low-cost alternative to ocean-bottom seismometers that allows for obser- vation of Pn velocities and mantle/core phases arriving at normally inaccessible deep- sea locations.

This letter examines earthquake locations derived using independent teleseismic and hydroacoustic data sets for events along the north-central (15°-35°N) Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) and equatorial (10°S-10°N) East Pacific Rise (EPR). It represents the first large-scale comparison of such data, providing ground-truth information for the teleseismic locations and insight into the process of T -wave generation. An assessment of location accuracy and catalog completeness in these remote ocean settings is critical for explosion monitoring efforts associated with the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), as well as seismotectonic studies at mid-ocean ridges (MOR's). During the last decade, the value of hydroacoustic studies in monitoring MOR seismicity has been demonstrated through work using the U.S. Navy's SOund SUrveillance System (SOSUS) ( e.g., Fox et al., 1994) and arrays of moored autonomous underwater hydrophones (AUH's) ( e.g., Fox et al., 2001; Smith et al., 2002). These studies utilize seismically generated tertiary (7) waves that propagate within the ocean's SOund Fixing And Ranging (SOFAR) channel (Tolstoy and Ewing, 1950). In locating submarine earthquakes, the main advantages of the hydroacoustic method stem from the efficiency of this low-velocity wave guide, which allows for the detection of much smaller events at longer ranges relative to that possible with waves that travel through the solid earth, as well as from the existence of a well defined ocean sound-speed model ( e.g., Teague et al., 1990). Although T waves may be produced within regions of shallow sloping bathymetry near oceanic islands, continental shelves, and subduction zones ( e.g., Shurbet and Ewing, 1957; Johnson and Norris, 1968; Talandier and Okal, 1998), here we examine their generation in association with shallow hypocenter events within a deeper-ocean or abyssal environment ( e.g., Johnson, et al., 1968; Fox et al., 1994). In this setting, the scattering of energy from a rough seafloor has emerged as the …

An earthquake catalog derived from the detection of seismically-generated T-waves is used to study the time-clustering behavior of moderate-size (≳3.0 M) earthquakes between 15 and 35°N along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). Within this region, the distribution of inter-event times is consistent with a non-periodic, non-random, clustered process. The highest degrees of clustering are associated temporally with large mainshock-aftershock sequences; however, some swarm-like activity also is evident. Temporal fluctuations characterized by a power spectral density P(f) that decays as 1/fα are present within the time sequence, with α ranging from 0.12 to 0.55 for different regions of the spreading axis. This behavior is negligible at time scales less than ∼5×103 s, and earthquake occurrence becomes less clustered (smaller α) as increasing size thresholds are applied to the catalog. A power-law size-frequency scaling for Mid-Atlantic Ridge earthquakes also can be demonstrated using the distribution of acoustic magnitudes, or source levels. Although fractal seismic behavior has been linked to the structure of the underlying fault population in other environments, power–law fault size distributions have not been observed widely in the mid-ocean ridge setting.

Hydroacoustic data from autonomous arrays and the U.S. Navy's Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) provide an opportunity to examine the temporal and spatial properties of seismicity along portions of the slow-spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR), intermediate-spreading Juan de Fuca Ridge (JdFR) and fast-spreading East Pacific Rise (EPR). Aftershock and foreshock events are selected from the hydroacoustic earthquake catalog using single-link cluster (SLC) analysis, with a combined space–time metric. In the regions examined, hydroacoustic data improve the completeness level of the earthquake catalog by ∼1.5–2.0 orders of magnitude, allowing the decay constant, p , of the modified Omori law (MOL) to be determined for individual sequences. A non-parametric goodness-of-fit test indicates six of the seven sequences examined are described well by a MOL model. The p -values obtained for individual ridge and transform sequences using hydroacoustic data are larger than that previously estimated from the analysis of a stacked sequence generated from teleseismic data. For three sequences along the Siqueiros, Discovery and western Blanco Transforms, p -values are estimated to be ∼0.94–1.29. The spatial distribution of aftershocks suggests that the mainshock rupture is constrained by intra-transform spreading centers at these locations. An aftershock sequence following a 7.1 M s thrust event near the northern edge of the Easter Microplate exhibits p =1.02±0.11. Within the sequence, aftershocks are located to the north of a large topographic ridge, which may represent the surface expression of the shallow-dipping fault that ruptured during the mainshock. Two aftershock sequences near 24°25′N and 16°35′N on the MAR exhibit higher p -values, 1.74±0.23 and 2.37±1.65, although the latter estimate is not well constrained because of the small number of aftershocks. Larger p -values along the ridge crest might reflect a hotter thermal regime in this setting. Additional monitoring, however, will be needed to determine if p -value differences between the ridge and transform sequences are robust. A 1999 sequence on the Endeavour segment of the JdFR, which has been correlated with changes in the hydrothermal system, is described poorly by the MOL model. The failure of the MOL model, the anomalously large number of earthquakes within the sequence and absence of a clearly dominant mainshock are inconsistent with aftershock activity and the simple tectonic origin that has been proposed previously for this sequence.

Analysis of 12,000 electronic still camera images collected with the ARGO II vehicle near the Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) active hydrothermal mound, 26°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has made possible the first quantitative in situ assessment of both fissure orientation and width within the median valley of a slow-spreading ridge. Fissures near the TAG mound are partially rubble-filled extensional fractures that cut lightly sedimented seafloor and in ∼1% of our observations host pillow lavas. Fissure widths range from 0.15 to 3.5 m, with a mean of 0.7 m, and do not vary systematically within the survey area. First-order estimates of crack depth, based on these width measurements and reasonable elastic moduli, indicate that fissures are restricted to depths 45° from the strike of the ridge axis. The formation of obliquely oriented fissures requires that the local least compressive stress direction varies (at least temporarily) from that predicted by the regional tectonic stress field associated with plate separation. This stress field reorientation may be facilitated by variations in the style of magma emplacement within the rift. The close spatial association of long-term hydrothermal activity, fissure-hosted lava flows, and faults and fissures trending oblique to the spreading axis suggests a causal relationship between the impact of dike intrusion and the maintenance of localized hydrothermal flow.

A quantitative assessment of faulting on the median valley floor of a slow spreading ridge is accomplished through the analysis of high-resolution DSL-120 sidescan sonar and coregistered bathymetric data from the TAG segment near 26°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At this location, faulting is exposed within a 3–5 km wide ridge-parallel zone lying asymmetrically on the eastern half of the median valley floor. Mapped faults have a normal sense of displacement, are

Underwater sound recordings have been used to monitor transform faults in the equatorial Pacific, implicating a mechanism of foreshock generation distinct from that on most continental fault systems.

at NW Rota-1 are primarily H2O, SO2, and CO2. Instantaneous fluxes varied by a factor of � 100 over the deployment. Using melt inclusion information to estimate the concentration of CO2 in the explosive gases as 6.9 � 0.7 wt %, we calculate an annual CO2 eruption flux of 0.4 � 0.1 Tg a � 1 . This result is within the range of measured CO2 fluxes at continuously erupting subaerial volcanoes, and represents � 0.2–0.6% of the annual estimated output of CO2 from all subaerial arc volcanoes, and � 0.4–0.6% of the mid-ocean ridge flux. The multiyear eruptive history of NW Rota-1 demonstrates that submarine volcanoes can be significant and sustained sources of CO2 to the shallow ocean.

[1] During January–February 2009, an active-source seismic survey was performed over the Eastern Lau Spreading Center in the Lau Back-Arc Basin (21°S, 176°S). Acoustic signals generated by theR/V Langseth's 36-gun pneumatic source array were recorded within the deep sound channel at offsets of 29–416 km. The local ocean acoustic environment is everywhere bottom limited, with seafloor depths within the study domain ranging from ∼1700–2800 m. Low-frequency (4–125 Hz) sound levels are monitored using root-mean-square, energy-flux-density and zero-to-peak measurement techniques. From these field data, transmission loss is found to exceed the predictions of a geometric spherical spreading model. At similar ranges, arrival amplitudes vary by up to 20 dB and durations vary by a factor of three to six. The depth of the seafloor beneath the air gun source exhibits a positive correlation with arrival duration and a negative correlation with range-corrected amplitude, explaining up to 30% of the observed variation in both parameters. The strength of this correlation, however, varies for stations lying at different azimuths, highlighting the importance of seafloor aspect and slope in the coupling of bottom-interacting acoustic energy into the sound channel. Range-dependent ray tracing shows that shots deployed over shallower seafloor are more likely to produce sound channel trapped signals that propagate with limited bottom interaction. This results in arrivals that are more impulsive, with shorter durations and higher amplitudes. Shots deployed in deeper water typically undergo a larger number of bounces and are characterized by more emergent, longer duration and smaller amplitude arrivals.

[1] An array of moored hydrophones was used to monitor the spatiotemporal distribution of small- to moderate-sized earthquakes and ice-generated sounds within the Bransfield Strait, Antarctica. During a 2 year period, a total of 3900 earthquakes, 5925 icequakes and numerous ice tremor events were located throughout the region. The seismic activity included eight space-time earthquake clusters, positioned along the central neovolcanic rift zone of the young Bransfield back-arc basin. These sequences of small magnitude earthquakes, or swarms, suggest ongoing magmatic activity that becomes localized along isolated volcanic features and fissure-like ridges in the southwest portion of the basin. A total of 122 earthquakes were located along the South Shetland trench, indicating continued deformation and possibly ongoing subduction along this margin. The large number of icequakes observed show a temporal pattern related to seasonal freeze-thaw cycles and a spatial distribution consistent with channeling of sea ice along submarine canyons from glacier fronts. Several harmonic tremor episodes were sourced from a large (∼30 km2) iceberg that entered northeast portion of the basin. The spectral character of these signals suggests they were produced by either resonance of a small chamber of fluid within the iceberg, or more likely, due to periodicity of discrete stick-slip events caused by contact of the moving iceberg with the seafloor. These pressure waves appear to have been excited by abrasion of the iceberg along the seafloor as it passed Clarence and Elephant Islands.

Ocean bottom seismic observations within the 9°50′N region of the East Pacific Rise indicate persistent, low-amplitude tremor activity throughout the October 2003 through February 2007 period of monitoring. These signals exhibit either monochromatic or polychromatic spectral characteristics, with a ∼6 Hz fundamental frequency and up to two harmonics. Individual events cannot be correlated between nearby (

[1] Hydrothermal fluid circulation at mid-ocean ridges facilitates the exchange of heat and chemicals between the oceans and the solid Earth, and supports chemosynthetic microbial and macro-faunal communities. The structure and evolution of newly formed oceanic crust plays a dominant role in controlling the character and longevity of hydrothermal systems; however, direct measurements of subsurface processes remain technologically challenging to obtain. Previous studies have shown that tidally-induced stresses within the subseafloor modulate both fluid flow and microearthquake origin times. In this study, we observe systematic along-axis variations between peak microearthquake activity and maximum predicted tidal extension beneath the hydrothermal vent site at 9°50′N East Pacific Rise. We interpret this systematic triggering to result from pore-pressure perturbations propagating laterally through the hydrothermal system. Based on our observations and a one-dimensional pore pressure perturbation model, we estimate bulk permeability at ∼10−13 to 10−12 m2 within layer 2B over a calculated diffusive lengthscale of 2.0 km.

[1] The R/V Marcus G. Langseth is the first 3-D seismic vessel operated by the U.S. academic community. With up to a four-string, 36-element source and four 6-km-long solid state hydrophone arrays, this vessel promises significant new insights into Earth science processes. The potential impact of anthropogenic sound sources on marine life is an important topic to the marine seismic community. To ensure that operations fully comply with existing and future marine mammal permitting requirements, a calibration experiment was conducted in the Gulf of Mexico in 2007–2008. Results are presented from deep (∼1.6 km) and shallow (∼50 m) water sites, obtained using the full 36-element (6600 cubic inches) seismic source. This array configuration will require the largest safety radii, and the deep and shallow sites provide two contrasting operational environments. Results show that safety radii and the offset between root-mean-square and sound exposure level measurements were highly dependent on water depth.

[1] An array of autonomous underwater hydrophones is used to investigate regional seismicity associated with the 22 January 2006 seafloor-spreading event on the northern East Pacific Rise near 9°50′N. Significant earthquake activity was observed beginning 3 weeks prior to the eruption, where a total of 255 earthquakes were detected within the vicinity of the 9°50′N area. This was followed by a series of 252 events on 22 January and a rapid decline to background seismicity levels during the subsequent 3 days. Because of their small magnitudes, accurate locations could be derived for only 20 of these events, 18 of which occurred during a 1-h period on 22 January. These earthquakes cluster near 9°45′N and 9°55′N, at the distal ends of the young lava flows identified posteruption, where the activity displays a distinct spatial-temporal pattern, alternating from the north to the south and then back to the north. This implies either rapid bilateral propagation along the rift or the near-simultaneous injection of melt vertically from the axial magma lens. Short-duration T wave risetimes are consistent with the eruption of lavas in the vicinity of 9°50′N on 22 January 2006. Eruptions on 12 and 15–16 January also may be inferred from the risetime data; however, the locations of these smaller-magnitude events cannot be determined accurately. Roughly 15 h after the last earthquakes were located adjacent to the eruption site, a sequence of 16 earthquakes began to the north-northeast at a distance of 25–40 km from the 9°50′N site. These events are located in vicinity of the Clipperton Transform and its western inside corner, an area from which the regional hydrophone network routinely detects seismicity. Coulomb stress modeling indicates that a dike intrusion spanning the known eruptive zone to the south (9°46′–9°56′N) would act to promote normal faulting or a combination of normal faulting and transform slip within this region, with stress changes on the order of 1–10 kPa.

Earthquakes along mid-ocean ridge spreading centers and oceanic transforms are monitored using a combination of seismic and hydroacoustic technologies. These seismic events can be used to constrain patterns of hydrothermal cooling, track the injection of magmatic dikes within the crust, and delineate the geometry of the tectonic plate boundary. Global patterns in ridge-crest seismicity are correlated with spreading rate, with small-to-moderate size events (M >3) being common at slow-spreading centers ( 80 mm/yr). Hydrothermal systems have been shown to exhibit variable and complex responses to earthquakes at local and regional scales, and seismic faulting plays an important role in creating and maintaining permeable fluid pathways. As heat is extracted from young ocean crust, thermal contraction drives pervasive microearthquake activity (M 5) are observed along oceanic transforms at all spreading rates. Yet, the rates of moment release along these boundaries typically are insufficient to account for the relative plate motions. Silent earthquakes, or slow creeping events, are thought to account for these discrepancies. At nontransform offsets the abyssal fabric of the seafloor may be reactivated with a strike-slip sense of motion and rotated through a mechanism known as bookshelf faulting.

[1] Deep-towed DSL-120 bathymetric data are used to investigate the pattern of lava dome formation along a superfast spreading portion of the southern East Pacific Rise (EPR), including the overlapping limbs of a giant (120 × 120 km) propagator near 29°S. Along the 670 km of the axis surveyed, 1172 small domes were identified using a closed contour algorithm. Their abundance, defined by spatial density, is well correlated with the along-axis relief of the ridge crest. Where the western and eastern limbs plunge toward the overlap zone, densities are high (3–6 km−2); however, where the axial depth profile is shallow and flat, densities are comparably low (0.4 km−2). Volcanic domes within the low abundance areas are characterized by lower ratios of height to basal radius (0.15 versus 0.22), smaller maximum heights (18 versus 40 m), and a larger relative percentage of small versus large mounds. The zone of high dome abundance encompasses the overlapping limbs of the rift and extends more than 100 km to the north and south beyond the overlap zone. Domes form dominantly during low effusion rate, point-source eruptions, which suggests that discontinuous melt lenses underlie the ridge axis proximal to the overlapper. Conversely, fissure-fed sheet flows dominate along the more distal segments, implying the presence of a more continuous axial magma lens. Throughout the survey area, dome abundance increases systematically near second-order segment boundaries. Within the high abundance zone, some third-order offsets also correlate with increased dome production, but local peaks in abundance are not tied exclusively to higher-order ridge offsets. Where dome abundance is low, domes are clustered tightly near second-order offsets and there is no increase in dome abundance near third-order segment boundaries.

[1] Relocated hypocentral data from a 7-month deployment (October 2003 to April 2004) of ocean bottom seismometers provide an opportunity to map microearthquake frequency-magnitude distributions (FMDs) along the 9°49–52′N region on the East Pacific Rise. These analyses, which incorporate more than 9000 earthquakes, represent the first investigation of the 3-D spatial and temporal patterns of FMDs along any mid-ocean ridge spreading center. The data are described well by a Gutenberg-Richter model, indicating a power law or fractal relationship between earthquake size and frequency. The scaling exponent, or b value, shows significant spatial variability, exceeding a value of 2.0 at the shallowest depths on axis and dropping below 1.0 away from the axial trough. This spatial pattern is consistent with an inverse relationship between b value and ambient stress conditions, with the lowest stress levels at shallow depths and relatively high stress levels (or low pore pressures) observed away from the axial zone. Intermediate b values are observed on-axis above the ridge system's melt lens; however, within this region there also exists significant spatial variability. This indicates that stress conditions and/or structural heterogeneity may vary at subkilometer scales within the hydrothermal circulation cell. Although the observational period is characterized by increasing seismicity rates, building toward an eruptive episode in January 2006, the first-order spatial pattern of b values is sustained, with no overall temporal trend. As a byproduct of this b value analysis, the detection capabilities of the array are assessed empirically.

[1] Unequivocal evidence of tidal triggering is observed for microearthquakes (−0.4 to 2.0 ML) recorded between October 2003 to April 2004 near 9°50′N on the East Pacific Rise (EPR). Although semidiurnal tidal stress changes are small ( 99.9%) nonrandom temporal distribution, with events occurring preferentially near times of peak extension. Due to the proximity of this site to an ocean tidal node, where changes in sea surface height are minimal, periodic stress changes are dominated by the solid Earth tide. In contrast, previous studies on the Juan de Fuca Ridge have shown microearthquake triggering to be a response to seafloor unloading during times of low ocean tide. The modulation of 9°50′N microearthquakes by small-amplitude periodic stresses is consistent with earthquake nucleation within a high stressing rate environment that is maintained near a critical state of failure by on-axis magmatic and hydrothermal processes.

The seismicity of the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge was recorded by two hydrophone networks moored in the sound fixing and ranging (SOFAR) channel, on the flanks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, north and south of the Azores. During its period of operation (05/2002-09/2003), the northern 'SIRENA' network, deployed between latitudes 40 degrees 20'N and 50 degrees 30'N, recorded acoustic signals generated by 809 earthquakes on the hotspot-influenced Reykjanes Ridge. This activity was distributed between five spatio-temporal event clusters, each initiated by a moderate-to-large magnitude (4.0-5.6 M) earthquake. The rate of earthquake occurrence within the initial portion of the largest sequence (which began on 2002 October 6) is described adequately by a modified Omori law aftershock model. Although this is consistent with triggering by tectonic processes, none of the Reykjanes Ridge sequences are dominated by a single large-magnitude earthquake, and they appear to be of relatively short duration (0.35-4.5 d) when compared to previously described mid-ocean ridge aftershock sequences. The occurrence of several near-equal magnitude events distributed throughout each sequence is inconsistent with the simple relaxation of main shock-induced stresses and may reflect the involvement of magmatic or fluid processes along this deep (>2000 m) section of the Reykjanes Ridge. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

[1] Mid to low southern latitude hydrophone stations within the Indian Ocean have recorded two distinct types of low-frequency (

[1] We have collected 12 kHz SeaBeam bathymetry and 120 kHz DSL-120 side-scan sonar and bathymetry data to determine the tectonic and volcanic segmentation along the fastest spreading (∼150 km/Myr) part of the global mid-ocean ridge system, the southern East Pacific Rise between the Easter and Juan Fernandez microplates. This area is presently reorganizing by large-scale dueling rift propagation and possible protomicroplate tectonics. Fracture patterns observed in the side-scan data define structural segmentation scales along these ridge segments. These sometimes, but not always, correlate with linear volcanic systems defining segmentation in the SeaBeam data. Some of the subsegments behave cohesively, with in-phase tectonic activity, while fundamental discontinuities occur between other subsegments. We also collected hydrothermal plume data using sensors mounted on the DSL-120 instrument package, as well as CTDO tow-yos, to determine detailed structural and volcanic controls on the hydrothermal vent pattern observed along 600 km of the Pacific-Nazca axis. Here we report the first rigorous correlation between coregistered hydrothermal plume and high-resolution marine geophysical data on similar scales and over multisegment distances. Major plume concentrations were usually found where axial inflation was relatively high and fracture density was relatively low. These correlations suggest that hydrothermal venting is most active where the apparent magmatic budget is greatest, resulting in recent eruptions that have paved over the neovolcanic zone. Areas of voluminous acoustically dark young lava flows produced from recent fissure eruptions correlate with many of the major hydrothermal vent areas. Increased crustal permeability, as gauged by increased fracture density, does not enhance hydrothermal venting in this area. Axial summit troughs and graben are rare, probably because of frequent volcanic resurfacing in this superfast spreading environment, and are not good predictors of hydrothermal activity here. Many of the hydrothermal areas are found in inflated areas near the ends of segments, suggesting that abundant magma is being supplied to these areas.

[1] Two large clusters of earthquake activity in June of 1999 and January of 2000 have dominated recent seismicity along the Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. The impacts of the June 1999 sequence on the hydrologic system, which include changes in vent temperature and chemistry within the Main Endeavour Vent Field, have been well documented previously. Analysis of seismic and hydroacoustic data indicates that both sequences exhibit a swarm-like behavior, characterized by the absence of a dominant main shock event. The epicentral locations of events within the two swarms overlap spatially, with centroid positions near 47°49′ and 47°46′N latitude. During the June 1999 swarm, the initial activity spans the along-axis region where a shallow axial magma chamber reflector was later imaged. The epicenters then migrate ∼12 km to the south at a rate of 0.3 m/s, consistent with lateral dike propagation. A distinct subcluster of events also occurred in the vicinity of Surveyor Volcano on the overlapping portion of the Cobb Segment. Given its distance from the main swarm, this activity may represent a triggered response to dynamic shaking. The January 2000 swarm has a more limited along-axis extent, relative to the June 1999 swarm, with no indication of lateral migration. Much of this activity is concentrated in a region predicted to have undergone extension due to dike propagation in 1999. Although it contains fewer total events and is of shorter duration, relative to the June 1999 swarm, the January 2000 activity exhibits a higher peak rate of seismicity and greater mean event magnitude. As in situ temperature monitoring was not in place during January 2000 and vent fluids were not sampled until June 2000, the impacts of this swarm on the hydrothermal system are unknown. The southernmost tip of the Endeavour Segment also is found to be a region of repeating swarm activity. Although morphologic evidence indicates the Cobb Segment has been propagating northward recently, this seismic activity suggests that the western limb of the Endeavour-Cobb overlap zone remains active.

[1] On 15 July 2003 an extremely large (7.6 Mw) strike-slip earthquake initiated on or near the end of an active transform along the northern Central Indian Ridge. The event propagated away from the plate boundary along the typically inactive fracture zone, with a sense of slip that opposes the active transform slip direction. Seismically and hydroacoustically determined aftershock locations delineate a 210 ± 25 km long mainshock rupture. The seismic moment and rupture dimensions imply a stress drop of 4.5-6.5 MPa and a mean slip of 3.0 ± 0.5 m. The largest aftershock (5.6 Nw) occurred on the active portion of a neighboring transform at a distance of ∼160 km, where mainshock-induced static stress changes are predicted to promote failure. Near-axis fracture-zone earthquakes may promote and inhibit ridge-parallel diking along different spreading segments, perhaps contributing to inter-segment variability in the rate and asymmetry of spreading.

[1] The effects of anthropogenic sound sources on marine mammals are of increasing interest and controversy [e.g., Malakoff, 2001]. To understand and mitigate better the possible impacts of specific sound sources, well-calibrated broadband measurements of acoustic received levels must be made in a variety of environments. In late spring 2003 an acoustic calibration study was conducted in the northern Gulf of Mexico to obtain broad frequency band measurements of seismic sources used by the R/V MauriceEwing. Received levels in deep water were lower than anticipated based on modeling, and in shallow water they were higher. For the marine mammals of greatest concern (beaked whales) the 1–20 kHz frequency range is considered particularly significant [National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration and U. S. Navy, 2001; Frantzis et al., 2002]. 1/3-octave measurements show received levels at 1 kHz are ∼20–33 dB (re: 1 μPa) lower than peak levels at 5–100 Hz, and decrease an additional ∼20–33 dB in the 10–20 kHz range.

[1] Mid-ocean ridge volcanic activity is the fundamental process for creation of ocean crust, yet the dynamics of magma emplacement along the slow spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) are largely unknown. We present acoustical, seismological, and biological evidence of a magmatic dike intrusion at the Lucky Strike segment, the first detected from the deeper sections (>1500 m) of the MAR. The dike caused the largest teleseismic earthquake swarm recorded at Lucky Strike in >20 years of seismic monitoring, and one of the largest ever recorded on the northern MAR. Hydrophone records indicate that the rate of earthquake activity decays in a nontectonic manner and that the onset of the swarm was accompanied by 30 min of broadband (>3 Hz) intrusion tremor, suggesting a volcanic origin. Two submersible investigations of high-temperature vents located at the summit of Lucky Strike Seamount 3 months and 1 year after the swarm showed a significant increase in microbial activity and diffuse venting. This magmatic episode may represent one form of volcanism along the MAR, where highly focused pockets of magma are intruded sporadically into the shallow ocean crust beneath long-lived, discrete volcanic structures recharging preexisting seafloor hydrothermal vents and ecosystems. INDEX TERMS: 3035 Marine Geology and Geophysics: Midocean ridge processes; 7280 Seismology: Volcano seismology (8419); 8149 Tectonophysics: Planetary tectonics (5475); 4259 Oceanography: General: Ocean acoustics; 9325 Information Related to Geographic Region: Atlantic Ocean; KEYWORDS: Mid-Atlantic Ridge, earthquake, hydroacoustic

[1] A detailed investigation of the relationship between the spatial and temporal patterns of the seismic activity recorded by six autonomous hydrophones and the structure of the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge between 15° and 35°N is presented. Two years of monitoring yielded a total of 3485 hydroacoustically detected events within the array recorded by four or more hydrophones. The seismically active zone extends ∼20 km to either side of the ridge axis, consistent with earlier results from studies of fault morphology. Along the axis, hydrophone-recorded activity shows important variations. Areas with intense and persistent seismic activity (stripes) stand in sharp contrast to areas that lack seismicity (gaps). The regions of persistent activity are a new observation at mid-ocean ridges. In general, the patterns of seismically active/inactive regions are also recognized in the 28-year teleseismic record, implying that these patterns are maintained at timescales between a few years and a few decades. We find no simple relationship between individual segment variables (e.g., length or trend of the segment, maximum offset of discontinuities, or along-axis change in mantle Bouguer anomaly (MBA) and water depths) and number of hydrophone-recorded events. There does appear to be a correlation between axial thermal structure and seismicity. Regions of low and high numbers of events would thus correspond to thinner (hotter) and thicker (colder) lithosphere, respectively. Seismicity may reflect thermal structure at short timescales (decadal or longer), while relief and inferred crustal thickness may integrate this structure over longer periods of time (order of 1 Myr).

[1] In February 1999, long-term hydroacoustic monitoring of the northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) was initiated. Six autonomous hydrophones were moored between ∼15°N and ∼35°N on the flanks of the MAR. Results from the first year of data reveal that there is significant variability in along-axis event rate. Groups of neighboring segments behave similarly, producing an along-axis pattern with high and low levels of seismic activity at a wavelength of ∼500 km. This broad scale pattern is likely influenced by the axial thermal regime. Several earthquake sequences with variable temporal characteristics were detected, suggesting fundamental differences in the cause of their seismicity. Off-axis, most seismic faulting occurs within a zone < 15 km from the axis center.

[1] Structural mapping from high-resolution sonar and bathymetric data collected near 19°30′S on the southern East Pacific Rise (EPR) reveals multiple packets of small, closely spaced outward-dipping faults that form antithetic to larger inward-dipping faults. The mean spacing and height of inward-dipping scarps are ∼1.6 and ∼1.9 times greater than those of outward-dipping faults, and the median spacing and height of inward-dipping scarps are ∼2.0 and ∼1.7 times greater, respectively. Accordingly, inward-dipping faults are less abundant (35–45%) but accommodate more (50–55%) of the roughly ∼4.0% strain. Although previous studies have shown that EPR fault populations exhibit exponential size-frequency distributions, one-dimensional throw and spacing data from the 19°30′S region are not described well by this model. The first major (>40 m scarp height) fault is observed within 1–4 km of the ridge crest and invariably dips inward. Further off-axis, a transition from greater inward-dipping to greater outward-dipping fault abundance constrains the minimum half width of the active plate boundary zone to be ∼5–15 km. Inspection of additional data sets from 16° and 18°30′S indicates a pattern of large inward-dipping faults with associated hanging wall deformation similar to that observed in the 19°30′S region. This pattern is distinct from the horst and graben morphology observed along the fast spreading northern EPR. The pervasive hanging wall deformation observed on the flanks of the southern EPR suggests master fault geometries that are more sharply curved or kinked at depth, relative to their abyssal hill equivalents on the northern EPR. Boundary element modeling indicates the pattern and geometry of faulting observed along the southern EPR is consistent with fault nucleation above a shallow, sill-like magma chamber with internal overpressure. Since the influence of the sill on fault growth is strongly dependent on the depth of the sill, the different patterns of faulting observed along the northern and southern EPR may reflect the small difference in axial magma chamber depth between these two regions, with a slightly shallower chamber beneath the southern EPR.

Seafloor spreading is accommodated by volcanic and tectonic processes along the global mid-ocean ridge system. As spreading rate decreases the influence of volcanism also decreases, and it is unknown whether significant volcanism occurs at all at ultraslow spreading rates (

The creation of ocean crust by rapid injection of magma at mid-ocean ridges can lead to eruptions of lava onto the seafloor and release of “event plumes,” which are huge volumes of anomalously warm water enriched in reduced chemicals that rise up to 1 km above the seafloor. Here, we use seismic data to show that seafloor eruptions and the release of hydrothermal event plumes correspond to diking episodes with high injection velocities and rapid onset of magma emplacement within the rift zone. These attributes result from high excess magma pressure at the dike source, likely due to a new influx of melt from the mantle. These dynamic magmatic conditions can be detected remotely and may predict the likelihood of event plume release during future seafloor spreading events.