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Inappropriate forest management activities, above all clear-cutting, are recognized as the major threats to an iconic orchid species—the lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium calceolus), the flagship species of nature protection in Europe. Although clear-cutting in protected species' localities is strongly regulated in many European countries, salvage logging is allowed in some circumstances (e.g., following windstorms, and insect outbreaks) and can threaten C. calceolus populations. In this paper, we review a database of recently registered populations of this species in the Czech Republic and study historical maps, to better understand the history of local habitat conditions and assess threats to C. calceolus populations by bark beetle outbreaks. We found that about one-third of the C. calceolus populations have suffered in coniferous or mixed tree plantations with a high proportion of spruce trees, which are forests with a high risk of bark beetle infestation. We review bark beetle management measures and distinguish management efforts in areas with known C. calceolus populations that result in no damage to the population and, at times, improve habitat conditions for the species. Thus, the bark beetle—usually understood as the enemy—can be transformed into a savior if smart management measures will replace the panic salvage logging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bohemian Forest grasslands have emerged gradually over centuries, with political turbulence in the second half of the 20th century strongly affecting the region, including its meadows. Today, there are cultural and partly degraded meadows as well as fragments of highly valuable semi-natural mountain meadows, important biodiversity localities in the mostly wooded Bohemian Forest landscape. Their conservation value began to be taken into account in 1991, when the Šumava NP was established, and re-emphasized in 2004, when certain grasslands were recognized as Natura 2000 habitats. Maintaining favorable conditions of meadow habitats is a hard task even in strictly protected areas and the most common difficulties are listed in this paper. More attention has been paid to the management of grasslands in the region during the last decade. The Šumava NP Authority provides the necessary management of the most valued localities and has organized simple monitoring in some managed sites. This paper presents the results of the first five years of monitoring of 16 sites. Results are discussed, along with field experiences, and more effective management strategies are proposed. Appropriate and carefully executed management is recognized as a necessary tool for ensuring proper care of conservationally valuable habitats, including grasslands of European importance protected under the Natura 2000 network. Monitoring is an essential tool to observe management quality. Results of this preliminary study deliver a substantial set of experiences that can be used to improve the management and monitoring of Natura 2000 habitats, as well as other species rich meadows occurring in the Šumava NP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The question, whether the forest management adopted in several European national parks following natural disturbances (windstorms, bark beetle) is in the long term the optimal one is currently widely discussed in a pan-European context. Instead of a clear management policy, however, only non-compulsory recommendations are suggested and management directives are missing. For example, it is established that non-intervention management is optimal for preserving biodiversity in mountain spruce stands, as logging diminishes biodiversity, but no such recommendation has been passed on to the managers of these stands. In the absence of such guidance park managers adopt various suboptimal strategies, which depend on who owns a particular area of the forest (private or state-owned) and their priorities. Here we present an example of this: the differences between the management practices applied by state and private owners in the central part of the Šumava NP. Using aerial photographs, we evaluated the effect of these practices by comparing the status of Natura 2000 habitats in 2004 (when the Natura 2000 area was designated), with that in 2011 (four years after the Kyrill wind storm, when the post-wind storm activities had more or less finished). The private owner logged and removed trees from significantly larger areas than the Šumava NP Authority. However, even management by the Šumava NP Authority was sometimes suboptimal: they managed some valuable habitats in a similar way to those of lower conservation value. We conclude that a clear definition of the long-term management strategy for national parks, obligatory on all owners, is critically important for the management of Natura 2000 habitats. A consensus of state representatives, regional politicians, scientists and all other stakeholders, expressed in obligatory international directives, is needed in order to guarantee that in the future the status of Natura 2000 habitats will still be favourable (required by the Habitats Directive, Article 6). Specifically, the managers of Natura 2000 sites would appreciate clearer European Commission guidance on how to maintain the favourable status of the stands in the areas under their control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of deicing salt have been studied with the same monitoring methods in three protected areas of the Bohemian Forest. More than ten years monitoring data set from the Šumava National Park and the Šumava Protected Landscape Area (since 2003) together with repeated monitoring conducted in the Bavarian Forest National Park (in 2011, 2012, and 2015) offer an unique opportunity for studying long-term trends and different sensitivities of various habitats occurring in the Bohemian Forest region. The same methodology for monitoring the effect of deicing salt is applied both in the Bavarian Forest NP (9 permanent sites) and the Šumava NP & PLA (12 permanent sites). Soil conditions have been recorded and samples of soil are collected at the study sites annually. The mixed soil samples for each site are analysed by the certified laboratory. Two five-meter long transects for fytoindication run parallel with the road at each site. The first one is located just at the edge of the asphalt road surface and the second one meter from the road edge. Transects are characterised by the percentages of halophytes, sub-halophytes and glycophytes. More statistical analyses are necessary; however, preliminary results have already shown growing concentrations of chlorides and high proportions of halophytic species (>60%) in some locations. The long-term monitoring using a proven methodology was found to be a very important tool for better understanding of the ecological impacts of road salting on surrounding ecosystems in the Bohemian Forest, the area of high conservation value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This analysis briefly compares the economic impacts of three potential future management scenarios for Šumava National Park (NP) in the Czech Republic: (1) continuation of current management, (2) the adoption of draft Bills that would declassify protected areas and enable developments (e.g. ski lift development) within some of the Park ' s most valuable habitats for wildlife, and (3) the adoption of proposals to expand the wilderness area in the Park ' s core with associated tourism opportunities. The proposals in the draft Bills have the potential to generate employment through ski lift development, but much of this activity will use imported labour and/or be short-term (e.g. associated with construction work). The financial viability of this development is uncertain for a number of reasons, including: likely requirements to compensate for damage to protected habitats, reduced future snow cover due to climate change, and competition to attract sufficient visitors to use the ski lift. The economic impacts of the adoption of the draft Bills (and, to a lesser extent, of continuing with current management) would also include negative effects on current nature tourism activity and on its long-term potential to expand. Currently, and certainly if the proposed plans in the draft Bill are adopted, the value of the NP as an area of wilderness and high-quality ecosystems will be reduced. This would weaken one of its key selling points as a tourism and recreation destination. The opportunity for international branding of the national park based on these ecosystems would be diminished. This damage to ecosystems would go against the views of the 75% of the Czech population who agree that it is important to halt the loss of biodiversity because we have a moral obligation to look after nature. Pro-wilderness development offers an alternative scenario. It would allow economic opportunities to be pursued to promote nature-based tourism at new locations and activities around an expanded non-intervention zone, while not undermining the ecological integrity of the NP. The Šumava NP is a unique area which supports a wide variety of habitats and species and has the potential to form one of the largest areas of natural forest and wetland habitat in Central Europe. This tourism offer is in keeping with visitor ' s preferences (identified in a 2010 survey), and can exploit global growth in ecotourism activity. The best access points to the Šumava NP ' s wilderness are currently regarded as being "full" in that further increases in visitors would damage the wilderness experience which draws visitors. Therefore, there is perceived to be demand for a larger number of carefully managed access points to a larger wilderness area. To maximise the local economic benefits of this tourism development around the park, appropriate training for the local workforce is required. Local benefits could be enhanced through nature-based tourism development that is spread throughout the communities in and around the park. This would not conflict with the park ' s wild image that attracts visitors, and this visitor market could grow with support from expanded marketing activity. The potential local economic benefits from the pro-wilderness development option include: maintaining and expanding employment in management of the National Park ' s habitats, visitor facilities and access points; increased nature-based tourism trade in the villages within and surrounding the Park; increased opportunities to attract financing for local economic development (e.g. training and SME support for nature-based tourism), and for the Park ' s management, both internationally (e.g. from EU funding sources), and locally (e.g. through fees for visitors using specific facilities); a greater proportion of value-added in the tourism offer being generated within the local community, meaning more income can be retained locally and support greater indirect economic activity, and maintaining forestry employment. Key aspects of this analysis are the way in which tourism potential at the Park is developed, and the extent of logging as a measure to manage bark beetle. Šumava NP borders the Bayerischer Wald NP in Germany, which has developed a successful nature-based tourism industry. This offers a proven model to pursue sustainable economic development under the pro-wilderness development scenario, and a unique opportunity for complementary promotion of the two parks branded as the "Wild Heart of Europe". More specific predictions of economic and employment impacts will require a full economic study. However, this initial analysis indicates that the pro-wilderness scenario offers a more economically and environmentally sustainable development plan for Šumava NP than either the current situation or the plans proposed in draft Bills. It is recommended that proposals in draft Bills should not be pursued at least until a fuller economic evaluation of options has been undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The future of the Šumava National Park is linked to discussions on its zoning, which has undergone significant changes since the establishment of the Park. The present zonation was strongly criticized by experts, representatives of NGOs and international organizations. Over the last couple of years, politicians became more vocal in callings for a new law that would fix the rules governing the use of the Šumava NP and the central question in this is zonation. A new proposal on the zonation was prepared by the scientific community, but in order to maximize the probability of its acceptance, the area of the core zone proposed was just barely sufficient to include the most valuable parts of the most important habitats and some of the habitats of the most important species. Thus, any further reduction in the area of the core zone is likely to pose a serious threat to the survival of important species and habitats occurring in the Šumava NP. Here we present a politically unbiased estimate of the optimum size of the core zone based on Natura 2000 habitats and species mapping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the relationships among a number of population and site characteristics and the ovule and seed production and seed set in 17 populations of the rare, self‐compatible, bumblebee‐pollinated perennial Gentiana pneumonanthe L. in the Netherlands. Population size and offspring heterozygosity were used as population properties; grass and heath cover, soil concentrations of various ions, soil acidity (pH), and soil moisture were used as habitat characteristics. Our aim was to find out how important population size and genetic variation are for the seed production of a rare plant, when accounting for a number of habitat parameters that might also be important for successful reproduction. Correlation coefficients between population and habitat characteristics showed that sites with low soil moisture and higher concentrations of most nutrients have a higher cover of grasses and a low cover of heath species. At such sites the population size of G. pneumonanthe was small and offspring heterozygosity was low. The number of ovules per fruit (a component of reproductive effort) was negatively associated with heterozygosity, phosphorus, and pH and positively associated with calcium, potassium, SO4, NH4, and electric conductivity. Total vegetation cover correlated positively with the variation in ovule production among individuals. Seed set and number of viable seeds per fruit, indicators of the success of fertilization and seed maturation, correlated positively with population size, the cover of co‐flowering heath species, and the same group of nutrients that (independently) had a positive effect on ovule production. A high NO2 concentration might be toxic because it had a negative effect on the number of viable seeds. Seed weight seemed to be independent of any population or habitat parameter. Besides lower mean values, we also found more variation in reproductive success among individuals in smaller populations. We conclude that plants in small populations of G. pneumonanthe have a similar reproductive potential per flower but have lower seed production and a higher uncertainty of successful reproduction than plants in large populations. Genetic variation was apparently not very important. In addition to population size, habitat characteristics also seemed to be important for seed production and seed set. The most important factors were the facilitating effect of the presence of other insect‐pollinated species and the concentrations of specific nutrients in the soil. To restore small populations, we advise small‐scale sod cutting around the remaining reproductive individuals. This simultaneously allows germination and seedling establishment of G. pneumonanthe, removes soil nutrients, and restores the cover of pollinator‐attracting heath species at the cost of grasses. Relaciones entre Características Poblacionales y del Habitat y la Reproducción de la Especie Rara Gentiana pneumonanthe L. Investigamos las relaciones entre un número determinado de características poblacionales y de sitio y la producción de óvulos y semillas en 17 poblaciones de la especie de hierba rara, autocompatible, polinizada por abejas y perenne Gentiana pneumonanthe L. en los Países Bajos. Utilizamos el tamaño poblacional y la heterocigosidad de la progenie como propiedades poblacionales, la cobertura de gramíneas y ericáceas en Ia vegetación y la concentración de algunas sustancias nutritivas en el suelo fueron usadas como características bióticas y abióticas del hábitat. Nuestra meta fue la de encontrar que tanta importancia tienen el tamaño poblacional y la variación genética en la producción de semillas de una planta rara, tomando en consideración un número de parámetros del hábitat que pueden ser importantes para una reproducción exitosa. Los coeficientes de correlación entre las características poblacionales y del hábitat mostraron que los sitios con grado de humedad bajo y concentraciones de nutrientes altas tienen una cobertura de grarmíneas elevada y de ericáceas reducida. En tales sitios, el tamaño poblacional de G. pneumonanthe es más pequeño y la heterocigosidad de las progenies es más baja. La producción potencial de semillas (medida en forma de número de óvulos por fruto) tenía una relación negativa con la heterocigosidad, la concentración de P y el pH del suelo y una relación positiva con las concentraciones de Ca, K, SO4 y NH4 y la conductividad eléctrica. Se encontró una correlación positiva entre la variación del número de óvulos y la cobertura total de la vegetación. El éxito de la fecundación y la maduración de semillas estuvo correlacionado positivamente con el tamaño poblacional, la cobertura de las ericáceas (que florecen simultáneamente) en la vegetación y el mismo grupo de nutrientes que (independientemente) surtían efecto positivo en el número de óvulos. La concentración de NO2 en el suelo mostró una correlación negativa con el número de semillas viables. También Ia variación en el éxito reproductivo fue más alta en las poblaciones pequeñas. No se encontró relación significativa entre el peso de las semillas y alguna de las características de la población o del hábitat. En base a relaciones observadas, concluimos que las poblaciones pequeñas de Gentiana pneumonanthe tienen el mismo potencial reproductivo por flor, pero tienen una menor producción de semillas y una mayor incertidumbre reproductiva en comparación con las poblaciones grandes. Los factores importantes para el éxito reproductivo son el tamaño poblacional, el efecto facilitador de la presencia de otras especies de hierbas polinizadas por insectos y la disponibilidad de sustancias nutritivas específicas en el suelo. Recomendamos la eliminación en pequeña escala del césped en los alrededores de los adultos reproductivos remanentes para restaurar pequeñas poblaciones. Este método hace posible al mismo tiempo la germinación y el establecimiento de individuos nuevos, remueve nutrientes del suelo y restablece la covertura de especies atrayentes de polinizadores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we present and discuss the main factors that threaten natural populations of Cypripedium calceolus (lady's slipper orchid) in Europe, and we propose conservation strategies and directions for protective actions of its population on a regional scale. European C. calceolus populations have decreased significantly in the last two decades, in both number and size. A key result of the present study is an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 network across the European Union (EU) countries. Northern and/or mountainous countries present higher percentages of potentially suitable areas within the Natura 2000 network. Finland and the United Kingdom are the exceptions to this rule. It is predicted that, due to global warming, the coverage of niches suitable for C. calceolus will decrease in countries in which now-healthy colonies exist. However, as plant species can occur in micro-sites with suitable environmental conditions (e.g., microclimate, vegetation, soil factors) which cannot be predicted as suitable at coarser spatial resolutions, conservation efforts should be focused on management of local healthy populations. For the effective protection of C. calceolus in Natura 2000 sites, the participation of experts in botany, including orchid biology, is necessary at several stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]