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Contrary to the long-standing idea of a scientific failure in early modern China as compared to Europe, some recent work has emphasized the existence of a tradition of ‘evidential’ research in the natural sciences, antiquarianism, and geography, especially during the Sung, Ming, and Qing periods. This article seeks to develop this new perspective by offering a comparative history of the genres of travel writing and ethnography in early modern Europe and Ming/early Qing China. We argue that there were qualitative as well as quantitative differences in the way that these genres functioned in each cultural area. Even when we find apparent similarities, we note different chronological rhythms and a different position of these genres of travel writing within a wider cultural field—what we might term their ‘cultural relevance’. The specific nature of Chinese state imperialism—or, conversely, the particular nature of European overseas colonialism—played a role in determining the type of ethnographic approach that came to predominate in each cultural area. These parallels and differences suggest a fresh perspective on the cultural origins of the ‘great divergence’. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article explores how the Qing (1644–1912) scholar Xie Qinggao (1765–1821) examined Europe in his Hailu and shows in what ways this work contributed to China's (re-)discovery of the Western world in the long eighteenth century. In his Hailu, which is usually translated as the Records of the Sea, Xie conjured up both factual and fanciful images of the Far West from the 1780s to the 1790s with a specific focus on Portugal, the Dutch Republic and England. In his highly vivid descriptions, Xie delineated some, in his eyes, characteristically Western customs, economies and religions with particular attention to the growth of these maritime countries (Chin. haiguo) and their expansions overseas. Despite its idiosyncrasies and a number of obscure details, Xie's study opened a new chapter in the Chinese understanding of Europe. Thanks to his work, some Chinese realised the need to revise their conventional understanding of Europe and to rediscover a continent located far beyond their tianxia worldview. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]