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In 1878, Britain developed the first systematic intelligence collection and analysis of China by a Western nation. Undertaken in response to intelligence failure and military defeat, the British Army in India established an intelligence section in Beijing using small numbers of Chinese-speaking British military officers. Their reports reveal their struggles to understand a culture and government radically different than their own and express a strong respect for Chinese military capabilities. The intelligence reports produced are a unique window into British history, intelligence practices and Chinese strategic thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on the moral and ethical responses to famine by the Qing and British empires in 19th century China, Ireland, and India. The author explains that differences in cultural constructions impacted how each society reacted to famines, comparing British and Chinese humanitarian policies, including English poor laws. She discusses how the political economy of each state impacted the famines, explores how each administration established famine relief, and analyzes how the victims of famine were viewed by their respective governments.

The article analyzes historical Chinese and Tibetan documents in order to assess various perspectives and consequences of the British invasion of Tibet in 1904 under colonel Francis Younghusband, focusing on the invasion's effect on Chinese attitudes towards Tibet. The documents illustrate the Tibetan government's communication with China and Tibet's disregard of Chinese authority due to a lack of support during the invasion. The Buddhist structure of the Tibetan government is discussed and Tibet's motivation to defend Buddhism from foreign religion is described. Relations between China's Qing dynasty and Tibet are highlighted and it is concluded that the documents analyzed suggest China's lack of resistance to the invasion was used to strategically assert power in Tibet.