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The article deals with the actual problem of cultural contact for modern historical knowledge on the example of the origin and development of the legends about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The main purpose of the research is to reflect the understanding of historically important images and symbols of European society through the subjective ideas, thoughts and intentions of a person of the Middle Ages. The main method of research is the socio-cultural approach, focused on the relations of people of the time, characterized by cultural diversity. Christianity in the Arthurian legends of the Middle Ages was one of the elements that had a significant impact on their formation and further development. This was influenced by the early and peaceful Christianization of the British Isles, as well as the cultural and religious contact of the Celtic settlers with the population of Armorica. This article examines two branches of the development of Arthurianism, the Christian origins of the legend of the Holy Grail, as well as the influence of Christian morality and homiletics on the plot-forming motifs of the medieval chivalric novel. In the course of the study, it is traced what influence on the development of the Arthurian cycle, in addition to the ancient Celto-Welsh tradition, was exerted by the early Christianization of the British Isles and how the combination of these factors turned Arthurian into a significant cultural tradition of European civilization.

EnglishThe Celts and the Etruscan and italics populations between the 6th and 3rd centuries BC. Breaking with a long-lasting tradition usually based on an analysis of the Celtic peoples of the peninsula in connection with the Northern Alps, the ANR Caecina, focused on Etruscan society and its permeability to external influences, led us to refocus our attention on the relationships between the Celtic communities and the indigenous societies. The aim is to understand how they fit into the mosaic of the peoples of the peninsula before the Roman expansion, and to show how they influenced the social and cultural practices of their neighbors. This contribution briefly presents the various actions and issues developed within the framework of this ANR. francaisRompant avec une tradition longtemps focalisee sur l’analyse des peuples celtiques de la peninsule en liaison avec le monde nord-alpin, l’ANR Caecina, centree sur la societe etrusque et sa permeabilite aux influences exterieures, nous a conduits a faire porter notre regard sur les rapports que les communautes celtiques entretinrent avec les societes indigenes, de maniere a mieux comprendre comment elles s’insererent dans la mosaique des peuples de la peninsule durant la periode precedant l’expansion romaine, et a montrer comment elles influerent sur les pratiques sociales et culturelles de leurs voisins. Cette contribution presente brievement les differentes actions et problematiques developpees dans le cadre de cette ANR.

The nineteenth century saw an extensive cult of the heroic fortitude of the British soldier in surgery. Tales of men laughing through unanaesthetised operations were endlessly repeated in newspapers, military memoirs, surgical literature and boy’s own stories. However, the identity of the “British soldier” was by no means obvious, since the British state itself was multi-ethnic. This paper considers thinking on the ‘natural’ martial qualities of ‘Celtic’ Scottish and Irish soldiers and how they were reflected in discussions of what behaviour could be expected in surgery, considering the impact of cultural explanations, racial theory and implicit political agendas.

One historical actor in Antiquity are the populations of Western-Central Europe, commonly called ‘Celts’ by classical authors. Themselves (mostly) illiterate until approximately the 1st century BC/AD, reports about them, written by foreigners like Polybius, Caesar, Diodorus and others have survived. The study of ‘Celtic’ societies thus can hardly rely on classical historiography, but is mainly based on archaeology. Historical sources and archaeology are difficult to reconcile, even if common themes can be identified in both types of sources. This article examines the differences, but also similarities between the various ‘Celtic’ societies of Europe and their neighbours, and the use of the term ‘the Celts’. The case study of the excavations at Meillionydd in North Wales is used to demonstrate how different types of source material and local and global scales can be integrated into a single, coherent explanatory model. RESUMO Entre os atores históricos da Antiguidade estão as populações do Noroeste e Centro da Europa, denominadas “Celtas” pelos autores clássicos. Embora iletradas, em sua maioria, até por volta do século I a.C./d.C., foram mencionadas por autores estrangeiros como Políbio, César, Estrabão, Diodoro e outros. O estudo dessas sociedades “célticas”, portanto, dificilmente se sustentaria com base apenas na historiografia clássica, mas precisa considerar a Arqueologia. As fontes históricas e arqueológicas são dificilmente reconciliáveis, mesmo quando há temas comuns. Este artigo examina as diferenças, mas também as semelhanças entre as várias sociedades “célticas” da Europa e seus vizinhos, e os usos do termo “Celta”. O estudo de caso das escavações de Meillionydd, no Norte do País de Gales, é usado para demonstrar como diferentes tipos de material e escalas local e global podem integrar-se em um único e coerente modelo explanatório.

The chronotope of Scythia conquest is one of the main issues of archaeology and history of the Scythian and Sarmatian Age. The literature sources present four versions of reasons and events, which led to the desintegration of Scythia in the 3rd century BC: the Celtic (expansion of the Celts from the Balkan region); the climatic (sharp deterioration of the climate with disaster consequences); the economic (decline of the grain trade); and the Sarmatian (the Sarmatian penetration from the East). The present paper studies the so-called Sarmatian hypothesis from the new viewpoint. The few but spectacular archaeological finds in the territory of Ukraine, Moldova and Romania (the special bronze frontlets and plaques for the breastplate, the bits with cruciform harsh mouth-pieces, and large eye-like beads-amulets) and their parallels in the North-Western Caucasus and in the Kuban region allow suggesting that at the beginning of the 3rd century BC the military expansion of the Siraci and Maeotae had ousted the Scythians from the North Pontic steppes to Trans-Dniester region. The mentioned finds mark the movement of their owners from the East to the West, all the way to the Danube. We also investigate the Scythian burial mounds of the second half of the 3rd – middle 2nd cc. BC in the Lower Dniester, also known as Tiraspol barrows. The analysis of the archaeological materials let us assume that the Caucasian conquerors represented the nobility of the Scythian horde, and its representatives were buried in the Tiraspol barrows. The ritual deposits (hoards or strange assemblages) of this time found in the Caucasus and in the North-Western Pontic region can be considered as the sites of military elite of this new unit. Probably, it should be identified with the Saii ruled by king Saitapharnes mentioned in the Olbian decree in honour of Protogenes.

The result of the colonisation of the eastern and southern part of the Carpathian Basin by Celtic communities was the appearance of some new communities characterised by the cultural amalgamation of the newcomers with the indigenous populations, which led to the construction of new collective identities. At the same time, the ?colonists? established different social, political or economic relationships with different indigenous populations from the Balkans. This article discusses the practices related to the cultural interactions between the aforementioned communities and the ways in which these connections can be identified through the analysis of material culture from the eastern and southern Carpathian Basin, and the northern and north-western Balkans.

International audience; With the Etruscan expansion to the Po Valley in the second half of the 6th century BC the Etruria Padana became an area of intercultural exchange between Greece in the East, the Celtic world in the North and West, and central Etruria and other Italian peoples in the south. The Etruscan population welcomed not only Greek goods but also adopted elements of Greek culture and lifestyle – including games. Since the second half of the 5th century, a century before the Celtic expansion to Northern Italy, people of Celtic origin installed themselves in the region and, to judge from the burial customs, apparently got well integrated into Etruscan society.In Etruscan and Celtic graves such as those around Bologna and Spina near Ferrara gaming material such as dice, counters, pebbles, and cowries has been found in great quantities. As far as the history of games is concerned this material may add to a better understanding not only of the games played by the Etruscans of the Certosa period, but also of the possible adoption of Greek games in the Po Valley and their transmission to the Celtic world.; Avec l’expansion étrusque dans la vallée du Pô dans la seconde moitié du VIe siècle av. J.-C., l’Étrurie Padane est devenue une zone d'échange interculturel entre la Grèce à l’est, le monde celte au nord et à l’ouest, et l’Étrurie centrale et les autres peuples italiens au sud. La population étrusque a accueilli non seulement des produits grecs, mais aussi des éléments de la culture et du mode de vie grecs, y compris des jeux. Depuis la seconde moitié du Ve siècle, un siècle avant l’expansion celtique vers le nord de l’Italie, des personnes d’origine celtique se sont installées dans la région et, à en juger par les coutumes funéraires, se sont apparemment bien intégrées dans la société étrusque.Dans les tombes étrusques et celtiques comme celles de Bologne et Spina près de Ferrare, on a trouvé en grande quantité du matériel de jeu comme des dés, des pions, des cailloux et des cauris. En ce qui concerne l’histoire des jeux, ce matériel peut contribuer à une meilleure compréhension non seulement des jeux joués par les Étrusques de l’époque de Certosa, mais aussi de l’adoption possible des jeux grecs dans la vallée du Pô et de leur transmission au monde celtique.

International audience; Ancient texts described that one of the most impressive ritual practices of the Celts during the Iron Age was to remove the heads of enemies killed in battle and to embalm them for display in front of the victors dwellings. An archaeological settlement excavation site in Le Cailar, in southern France, has revealed a considerable number of examples of this practice. It was documented by Classical authors and later by the archaeological recording of iconographic representations and skeletal remains of human heads. Weapons were also exhibited alongside the severed heads. Here we report the results of chemical investigations for the characterization of the biomarkers of embalming that are likely to be present in eleven fragments of these human cranial remains. These results may lead to answers to some of the archaeometric questions related to the subject of embalming in 3rd century BC Transalpine Gaul, thus advancing the knowledge of these ritual practices, documented by Greek Classical authors as part of the wider research into the proto-historic societies of the Mediterranean coastal region.

La actividad mercenaria en la Antigüedad es uno de los campos de estudio más complejos de la investigación histórica, en buena medida debido a la difícil combinación que existe entre los siempre parciales datos de las fuentes literarias y la arqueología. La reciente publicación de dos monografías dedicadas al mercenario ibérico y celta, a cargo respectivamente de Raimon Graells y Luc Baray, nos brinda una magnífica oportunidad para retomar una vieja discusión siempre latente en el estudio de las dinámicas bélicas y culturales, y que nos permite ahondar en las intrincadas relaciones a larga distancia en el Occidente europeo antiguo, Research on ancient mercenaries is fraught with problems, being the match between the scarce and partial data provided by the literary sources and the archaeological record a tricky and difficult matter. The recent publication of two books dealing with Iberian and Celtic mercenaries, by Raimon Graells and Luc Baray respectively, offers us an opportunity to dwell on a pervading discussion when studying cultural and military dynamics, and long distance relationships in Ancient Western Europe

Straipsnyje analizuojama vienos nedidelės vakarų baltų genties – galindų etninė istorija. Galindų migracijos Rytų ir Vakarų Europoje idėja buvo iškelta kalbininkų (K. Būga, V. Toporovas), istorikų (V. Vilinbachovas, N. Engovatovas). Vienintelis argumentas buvo žodžių, panašių į etnonimą galind-, aptikimas „nuo Atlanto vandenyno iki Pamaskvio miškų“. Nors galindų migracijų pėdsakų nefiksuoja nei istoriniai šaltiniai, nei archeologinė medžiaga, kalbininkų iškelta hipotezė susilaukė visiško pritarimo Lietuvos archeologo E. Jovaišos monografijose, mokykliniame vadovėlyje, mokslo populiarinimo literatūroje. Straipsnio autoriai, kritiškai išanalizavę V. Toporovo galindų migracijos idėją ir jos ištakas, daro išvadą, kad tai liaudies etimologija paremti prasimanymai ir akivaizdi klaida. Tai suklaidino ne vieną mokslininką ir dėl to iki šiol tarsi grandininė reakcija randasi naujų klaidų ir istorinių nesąmonių. The supposition that the Galindians could take part in the Migration Period are being accepted as the scientific truth in Lithuania and associated mainly with the name of the Russian scholar V. Toporov. Although traces of the Galindian migrations are not found, Toporov’s main concepts were completely adopted by E. Jovaisha in his books and school manuals. The article regards the history of this question and its argumentation. The main focus of the paper is the methodology used by V. Toporov, and a systemic examination of all relative facts. During 1977–1983, the scholar published two theses and three small articles, which were all devoted to the Galindians. Yet his handling of the subject was somewhat unexpected. Before that, in 1972, V. Toporov published two substantial works, devoted to the toponymy of the Moscow region: any traces of the Galindians were absent there. It is possible to state that all aspects of the Galindian problematics were adopted by V. Toporov from another substantial work, written by V. B. Vilinbachov and N. V. Engovatov (1963). In many aspects, it would later become a starting point of his crackpot ideas. Traditionally, scholars relate the Galindians to the archaeological Bogaczewo culture. Its remains are located in the vicinity of the Mazurian Lake District, where the West-Baltic tribe was placed by Ptolemy (c. 100– c. 170 AD) and Peter of Dusburg († after 1326). A mass migration of a small tribe is unbelievable due to its very restricted economic and human potential. In historical records, the name Galindians is absent except for the mentions above. The so-called Eastern Galindians (люди Голѧдь – the people Goliad’) are certainly mentioned in the Russian chronicles only once, on 1147. However, the word Голѧдь in this context possesses some other meaning, while the word people (люди) is never being used with any ethnonym. Attempts to establish a connection between the Moshchin culture with the Goliad’ on Protva of the Russian chronicles are also unacceptable. We can mark a significant chronological gap of about five centuries between them, and the absence of any obvious archaeological monuments of the Goliad’ at the beginning of the second millennium. The conceptions of the Galindians by V. Toporov are not homogeneous. The conclusions he came to contradict one another: in one article he postulates a Great Galindia from the Moscow region to the Prussian lands, in another – huge Galindian migrations over the whole of Europe. His declarations about the simultaneous Galindians migrations with the Visigoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, as well as their migration to the Moscow region are certainly improbable or even absurd. V. Toporov’s assumption of Galindians migration with the Visigoths was based purely on the presumption that there was a warrior named Galindo among the Goths. This assumption was found to be false, as studies of Gothic prosopography discovered that such a Gothic name was absent. The name Galindo appeared much later and originated in one Frankish region; moreover, Gin Galindo was a Vulgar Latin hypercorrection of the initial Germanic W-. Thus, the migration ideas of the Galindians by V. Toporov and his followers have no historic, archaeological or linguistic grounds. They are only based on the affluent and fantastic misinterpretations of the anthroponomical and toponymic forms, collected by him. In many respects these forms are completely different. They were taken from various languages; originate from various territories that are extremely distant from one another, and known from different times. They only partially and often very distantly resemble the ethnonym Galindian.

У даній статті простежено вплив потужних класичних цивілізацій античної Греції та Риму на Галицькі ойконімні освіти на підставі лінгвістичного і історичного екскурсів в античні часи., The present paper traces the influence of such powerful classical civilizations as ancient Greeceand Romeon the formation of Galician place names at the base of a linguistic and historical overview of the ancient epochs., Cet article retrace l'influence des puissants civilisations classiques de la Grèceantique et de la Romesur la formation des noms de lieu galiciens à la base d’un aperçu linguistiques et historiques dans l’ancienne époque., В данной статье прослежено влияние мощных классических цивилизаций античной Греции и Рима на Галицкие ойконимные образования на основании лингвистического и исторического экскурсов в древние эпохи.

The present work departs from a text of Strabo in which the author affirms that the celtic peoples of Gallaecia came from the banks of the river Guadiana, from where they moved together with the turdulians. We formulate the hypothesis that this migration took place in the context of the Lusitanian wars, concretely during the Fabius Maximus Seruilianus proconsulship (141 B.C.). This theory is based on Strabo’s information; on the political and military context in that period in the area of Beturia, where the most destructive military campaigns by the Roman armies were taking place; on the fact that many populated places in Beturia were abandoned in this time and, finally, for changes in the population of diverse areas of the Hispanic northwest in the middle of the second century B.C. In this context, the migration of the celts and turdulians acquires more coherence as beginning of the legend of the river Limia as “Oblivion river”, for it influenced Junius Brutus’s troops during 137 B.C., when they carried out the expedition up to the river Miño.El presente trabajo parte del texto de Estrabón en el que afirma que los célticos de Gallaecia procedían de las orillas del Guadiana, desde donde se desplazaron junto a los túrdulos. Formulamos la hipótesis de que esa migración se produjo en el contexto de las guerras lusitanas, en concreto, desde el proconsulado de Fabius Maximus Seruilianus en el año 141 a.C. A esta conclusión se llega a partir de datos que se desprenden del texto de Estrabón; del contexto político-militar existente en ese momento en el área de la Beturia céltica, cuando se producen las campañas militares más destructivas por parte de los ejércitos romanos; de huellas de abandono de asentamientos en núcleos poblados betúricos en esa época y, finalmente, por cambios en el poblamiento de diversas áreas del noroeste hispano a mediados del s. II a.C. En este esquema adquiere más coherencia esa migración como inicio de la leyenda del río Limia como “río del Olvido”, que estuvo muy presente entre las tropas de Junius Brutus durante el 137 a.C., cuando llevaron a cabo su expedición hasta el río Miño. [gl] O presente traballo parte do texto de Estrabón no que afirma que os célticos de Gallaecia procedían das beiras do Guadiana, dende onde se desprazaron xunto aos túrdulos. Formulamos a hipótese de que esa migración se produciu no contexto das guerras lusitanas, en concreto, dende o proconsulado de Fabius Maximus Seruilianus durante o ano 141 a.C. A esta conclusión chégase a partir de datos que se desprenden do texto de Estrabón; do contexto político-militar existente nese momento na área da Beturia céltica, en que se producen as campañas militares máis destrutivas por parte dos exércitos romanos; de rastros de abandono de asentamentos en núcleos poboados betúricos nesa época e, finalmente, por cambios no poboamento de diversas áreas do noroeste hispano a mediados do s. II a.C. Neste contexto adquire máis coherencia esa migración como inicio da lenda do río Limia como “río do Esquecemento”, que estivo moi presente entre as tropas de Junius Brutus durante o 137 a.C., cando levaron a cabo a súa expedición ata o río Miño.

Presently in collective consciousness there was a steady perception of Spain as the safe state entering into group of the countries, being a support of the European integration. The impression was made that Spain, despite difficulties of its historical development, at last found the national identity, having created from regions and national lands making it the new multicultural community fastened in a whole by a tolerant, educated and authoritative monarchy. However the world economic crisis which has begun in 2008 destroyed the Spanish idyll, having aggravated old and having generated new contradictions. Traditionally painful problem for Spain was existence of centrifugal tendencies at the heart of which two main reasons lay: manifestations of the nationalism peculiar to those areas where Catalan, Basque and Galician nationalities historically lived, and a regionalism caused by aspiration of local elite to bigger distance from Madrid. Considering features of pre-Roman history of Spain, the author seeks to understand, whether sources of modern separatism can originate in an extreme antiquity. Following the results of research the conclusion is drawn that most boldly "link of times" is traced on the example of Basques, the part of which intellectual elite seeks to use features of origin and historical development of these people for a reinforcement of current nationalist and separatist trends. The author considers that the history has to serve as the bridge between the people, instead of put up between them a new wall.

Eskiçağda toplumların yapısını yahut tarihini anlamak adına en önemli olguların başında o toplulukların bulundukları bölgelere nasıl geldiklerini bilmek gerekmektedir. Bu nedenle göçler, yalnızca eskiçağı değil aynı zamanda Bronz Çağ'ından günümüze değin tüm tarihsel süreçlerin oluşmasını sağlayan eylemlerdir. Bizim konu ettiğimiz M.Ö. 13-3. yüzyıllar arasında gerçekleşen göçler özellikle Anadolu ve Hellas'ın tarihi yapısının oluşmasında önemlidirler. Şunu belirtmek gerekir ki, bu göçler birbirleriyle bağlantısız değildir, aksine zincirleme şeklinde birbirlerini etkileyen ve takip eden hareketlerdir. Dolayısıyla göç, tek bir toplulukla değil birden fazla topluluk birleştirilerek değerlendirilmelidir. Bu bağlamda çalışmamızın amacı göç unsurunun nedenlerini ve sonuçlarını bir arada inceleyerek, konu ettiğimiz toplulukları birbirleriyle ilişkilendirmek ve göçün esas nedenlerini anlamlandırmaya çalışmaktır. In order to understand the structure or history of societies in the ancient times, one of the most important events is to know how those societies came to the regions they were in. For this reason migrations are one of the main events that ensure us, which they are not only forms ancient times but all historical process from Bronze Age to the present. The migrations that took place between the thirteenth and the third centuries of B.C., which we are studying about, are especially important in the formation of the historical structure of Anatolia and Hellas. It should be noted that these migrations are not unrelated to each other. On the contrary, they are chained movements that affect and follow each other. Therefore, migration should be assessed by combining multiple communities, not by examining a single community. In this context, our aim is to analyze the causes and consequences of the phenomenon of migration and try to understand the main causes of migration. 221

Group find of the silver jewelry of the Hellenistic and Celtic type has been discovered by chance in the area of the Hrtkovci village. The find consists of gilded hinged fibula, three fibulae of the Middle La T?ne type and many pendants made of thin silver foil. Most of the finds are dated in the 2nd-1st century BC and only the new type of hinged fibula dates from considerably earlier period, possibly from the end of 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century BC. The new finds of silver jewelry discovered in the area of eastern Srem and dating from the Pre-Roman times confirm the existence of the local workshop connected most probably to the Pre-Roman fortified settlement in Sremska Mitrovica.

This paper deals with the problem of changes within monetary systems, by comparing the Celtic tribes of the Treveri and the Scordisci. Changes and processes are specified which are common for mints of both tribes - changes of metals used for minting, loss of weight within the same coin type reduction of the territory in which coins have been distributed etc. Types which copy Roman republican coins have also been presented, as well as the coin types minted with the Roman permission.

Roger Hanoune, The Hole Plates of Bavay and Elsewhere : Coin Moulds or Goldsmiths' Ingot Crucibles ? The ancient and recent discoveries of « hole plates » in Bavay have led to a re-examination of these original artefacts (coin moulds or goldsmiths' crucibles) from the point of view of their extension, of their use, of their datation (Latenian or early Imperial)., Les trouvailles anciennes et récentes de « plaques à alvéoles » à Bavay permettent de reprendre l'examen de ce mobilier original (moules pour flans monétaires ou creusets d'orfèvre) du point de vue de sa diffusion, de son utilisation, de sa datation (laténienne ou impériale précoce)., Roger Hanoune, De uitgeholde platen uit Bavay en elders : muntgietvormen of malien van een edelsmid ? Oude en récente vondsten van « uitgeholde platen » te Bavay zijn een gelegenheid om de studie van die oorspronkelijke overblijfselen (muntgietvormen of malien van een edelsmid) te onderzoeken wat de verspreiding, het gebruik en de datering (Latèneperiode of vroeg keizerrijk) betreft., Hanoune Roger. Les plaques à alvéoles de Bavay et d'ailleurs : moules à flans monétaires ou creusets-lingotières d'orfèvre ?. In: Revue du Nord, tome 82, n°338,2000. Archéologie de la Picardie et du Nord de la France. pp. 9-12.