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Though hundreds of caves are known across Mongolia, few have been subject to systematic, interdisciplinary archaeological surveys and excavations to understand Late Pleistocene and Holocene environments. Previous cave excavations in Mongolia have demonstrated their potential for preservation of archaeological and biological material, including Palaeolithic assemblages and Holocene archaeology, particularly burials, with associated organic finds. In other cases, cave surveys found that stratigraphic deposits and archaeological materials are absent. The large number of caves makes the Mongolian Altai Mountain Range a potentially attractive region for human occupation in the Pleistocene and Holocene. Here we present the results of an interdisciplinary survey of caves in four carbonate areas across the Gobi-Altai Mountains. We report 24 new caves, some of which contain archaeological material recovered through survey and test excavations. Most caves presented limited sedimentation, and some were likely too small for human habitation. Six caves showed evidence of palaeontological remains, most likely from the Late Holocene and recent periods. The most notable anthropogenic findings included petroglyphs at Gazar Agui 1 & 13. Gazar Agui 1 also contained lithics and a bronze fragment. Tsakhiryn Agui 1 contained 31 wooden fragments that include an unused fire drilling tool kit and items commonly found in association with medieval burials. We observed that the caves remain in contemporary use for religious and economic purposes, such as the construction of shrines, mining and animal corralling. Water samples from the caves, and nearby rivers, lakes, and springs were analysed for their isotopic compositions (δ18O, δD, δ17O, 17O excess , d-excess) and the data, combined with backward trajectory modelling revealed that the Gobi-Altai region receives moisture mainly from western sources. These results form a baseline for future archaeological, palaeoclimate and palaeoecological studies about regional seasonality and land use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long and complex sequences of intentional organic rich sediments accumulation known as fumiers can often be found in many caves and rock shelters used for herding activities since the Neolithic to current times in the Mediterranean basin. These are mainly composed of burnt animal dung and vegetal remains and are commonly interpreted as the result of livestock domestic occupations and stabling activities. The repetitive and systematic burning processes that occurred for cleaning these spaces provide different layers with different archaeosedimentary features (facies). Fumier facies imply different pre-burial conditions that may influence bone diagenetic processes. In this work, we study the changes occurring in mineral and organic components of bones included in different facies (reelaborated, burned, unburned) in El Mirador cave fumier using Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). We have carried out an analysis of 47 bone remains from four different facies [ a , r(m) , tf and v ] from archaeological levels dated from the second half of the 5th until the first half of the 2nd millennia cal B.C. We have used a total of 13 parameters through ATR-FTIR to discriminate facies differences through PCA and Machine Learning techniques. The results show differences in crystallinity, organic, and carbonates content between bone remains recovered from fumier facies. Our results demonstrate that burial environments that occur on fumier deposits affect bone components in different ways. Therefore, fumier facies can be differentiated from each other through the diagenetic parameters provided by bone assemblage, distinguishing those well preserved and, therefore, eligible for other types of analyses (isotopes, proteomics, lipids, etc.). Furthermore, Machine Learning can classify the facies through carbonates indices API, C/C, and BPI. This study is an important step towards understanding the taphonomic processes (formation and reelaboration) that occur in fumier sequence as a result of the multiple livestock activities developed in caves and rock shelters. • The study investigates bone diagenetic processes occurring in fumiers context through ATR-FTIR. • Environments and taphonomic history prior to sedimentation have a great influence on the survivorship of bone remains. • Diagenetic trajectories and fire impact on archaeological bones can be used to distinguish facies in fumier sites. • The use of ML is a potential tool for fumier facies distinction when multiple bone diagenesis variables are included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]