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Holothuria scabra (sandfish) and Babylonia areolata were trialed in two large‐scale co‐culture experiments. Experiment 1 assessed co‐culture in 4 × 400 m2 earthen ponds where Babylonia were cultured in a central pen at a density of 400 individuals/m2 with sandfish occupying the remaining pond space at 1.1 individuals/m2. Sandfish grew from 18.20 ± 6.67 g to 119.03 ± 17.74 g in 92 days and Babylonia (fed trash fish in both experiments) grew from 0.90 ± 0.38 g to 4.93 ± 1.44 g, but Babylonia growth was not increased in co‐culture compared to monoculture. Water and sediment quality varied between co‐culture and monoculture ponds. Neither showed clear improvement due to sandfish culture. Experiment 2 compared non‐segregated sandfish‐Babylonia co‐culture with Babylonia monoculture in 20 m2 concrete raceways. Sandfish were cultured at 2 individuals/m2 and Babylonia at 300 individuals/m2. Sandfish grew up to 1.91 g.day−1 with 100% survival. Babylonia weight gain was significantly greater in co‐culture raceways (3.35 ± 0.64 g over 61 days), which was double that of Babylonia in monoculture. Substrate total N was reduced by 20% in co‐culture compared with monoculture (p =.032). This provisional study of commercial scale sandfish‐Babylonia co‐culture demonstrates culture compatibility, providing a basis for further system development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on the nutritional requirements and preferred diets of sea cucumber juveniles is extremely limited and this has hindered development of hatchery culture methods. This study assessed ingestion, cell wall digestion and relative nutritional values of two live micro-algae ( Isochrysis aff. galbana (TISO) and Chaetoceros muelleri ) and six concentrated micro-algae products (Instant Algae®, Reed Mariculture Inc.) for early juveniles of sandfish, Holothuria scabra . Seven of the eight micro-algae tested were ingested by juveniles with the exception of live TISO. Faeces excretion times varied between ingested diets that passed through the juvenile gut in less than 1 h. The cell walls of five of the eight micro-algae tested were partially or mostly digested ( Chaetoceros muelleri , TW1200®, Palova 1800®, Isochrysis 1800® and Shellfish 1800®), while the cell walls of Tetraselmis 3600® and 3H 1800® remained intact. Juvenile growth rates were significantly different between diet treatments over the duration of a 14 day growth trial. Mean (± SE) length of early juveniles at the end of the growth trial was highest for those fed live C . muelleri (4.10 ± 0.03 mm) followed by TW 1200® (3.49 ± 0.05 mm). Juvenile survival did not differ significantly between diet treatments and was highest for those fed C . muelleri (79.33 ± 6.11%) followed by TW1200® (78.33 ± 1.20%). Pearson's correlation tests were used to identify key correlations between the levels of specific nutrients and juvenile performance (growth and survival). A significant positive correlation between growth and dietary protein content ( P < 0.05), and a highly significant positive correlation between growth and dietary EPA:DHA ratio ( P < 0.01) provide new information to inform diet selection for juvenile sandfish that will help improve juvenile performance and support improved hatchery production. Use of commercially available micro-algae concentrates as a replacement for live micro-algae in sandfish hatcheries supports development of cheaper, simpler post settlement rearing protocols for this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the influence of diet composition on hyaline sphere (HS) development in auricularia larvae of the sandfish, Holothuria scabra , and the subsequent relationships between the presence and size of hyaline spheres and competency through settlement and early juvenile performance. Two-day old larvae were fed one of three commercially available micro-algae diets that varied in their nutrient compositions: (1) Isochrysis sp. (Haptophyceae); (2) Pavlova sp. (Haptophyceae); and (3) Thalassiosira weissflogii (Bacillariophyceae) or a ternary combination of the three. There were positive significant correlations between HS development in late auriculariae on days 10, 11, 12 and 13 post-fertilisation, and the proportion of competent doliolariae on day 15, post-settlement size (day 21) and post-settlement survival (day 25). The dietary components that most strongly influenced these relationships were carbohydrates and the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids arachidonic acid (ARA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Our result confirm the strong relationship between HS formation in late auriculariae of sandfish and subsequent larval competency through settlement. As such, the presence and size of HS is a reliable indicator of subsequent performance for sandfish. Given that HS development was influenced by the nutrients available to sandfish auriculariae, there is clear opportunity for development of more appropriate diets for hatchery culture of this species that will improve HS formation and larval performance supporting improved hatchery production. Statement of relevance Our results have confirmed that for sandfish larvae, the presence and size of HS at the end of the auricularia stage, is indeed a reliable indicator of subsequent performance. Our results have also confirmed that HS formation and size is significantly influenced by the nutrient composition of the auricularia diet, and that there are significant positive correlations between HS formation and dietary levels of carbohydrate, EPA:DHA and EPA:ARA ratios. This information provides a strong basis for development of more appropriate diets for sandfish larvae that will improve HS formation and larval performance during hatchery culture and in turn improve hatchery production of this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three Instant Algae® (Reed Mariculture Inc., Campbell, CA, USA, 95008) products: (1) mono-cultured Isochrysis sp. (Haptophyceae) (Isochrysis 1800®); (2) mono-cultured Pavlova sp. (Haptophyceae) (Pavlova 1800®); and (3) mono-cultured Thalassiosira weissflogii (Bacillariophyceae) (TW 1200®) were used to feed sandfish ( Holothuria scabra ) larvae both singly and in ternary combination to assess their nutritional efficacy. Two-day auriculariae were held at a starting density of 0.3 mL − 1 and were initially fed a daily ration equivalent to the dry weight of 10,000 cells mL − 1 of Isochrysis 1800®. This ration was increased by the dry weight equivalent of 1000 cells mL − 1 of Isochrysis 1800® per day as larval development proceeded. Post-settled larvae fed TW 1200® were significantly larger than those fed the ternary diet, Isochrysis 1800® or Pavlova 1800®. There were significant differences in the mean (± SE) survival of auriculariae and post-settled larvae between treatments and survival to settlement was significantly higher (P < 0.05) for larvae fed TW 1200® (13.7 ± 0.7%) alone. Laval development, competency and survival were significantly correlated with dietary levels of total protein, lipid and nitrogen-free extract (NFE), and with total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of the diets, and the levels of some specific fatty acids (FA). The proportion of late auriculariae with hyaline spheres (day 13), numbers of competent doliolariae (day 15) and the total length of post-settled larvae (day 21) were all positively correlated with dietary NFE and palmitic acid (16:0) contents, as well as dietary EPA: DHA ratio. This study is the first comprehensive assessment of the nutritional value of micro-algae concentrates for sandfish larvae based on their nutrient compositions. Our study confirms the feasibility of using commercially available microalgae concentrates as a sole food source for hatchery culture of sandfish, and is the first to report successful hatchery culture of H. scabra without using live micro-algae. All micro-algae concentrates used in this study proved nutritious for H. scabra larvae and supported normal growth and development and relatively high survival, through settlement. Use of commercially available micro-algae concentrates as a replacement for live micro-algae in sandfish hatcheries supports development of cheaper, simpler larval rearing protocols for this species. Statement of relevance Hatchery culture of sandfish using micro-algae concentrates, without the use of live micro-algae, is a significant finding that supports development of cheaper, simpler larval rearing protocols for this species. Our study provides detailed nutritional compositional data for the products used and on this basis we were able to deduce new information relating to key nutrients for sea cucumber larvae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on the nutritional requirements and preferred diets of sea cucumber (Holothuriidae) larvae is extremely limited and this has hindered development of hatchery culture methods. This study assessed ingestion and digestion of two live (TISO and Chaetoceros muelleri ) and six concentrated microalgae (Instant Algae®, Reed Mariculture Inc.) by sandfish ( Holothuria scabra ) auricularia larvae of different ages using epifluorescence microscopy. This is the first study to report the use of epifluorescence microscopy with larval echinoderms and experiments were conducted using 2, 6 and 10 day old auricularia larvae. Seven of the eight microalgae tested were ingested and digested by the larvae with digestion occurring more rapidly in older larvae. C. muelleri was rapidly digested by 6-day and 10-day old larvae but our results indicate that C. muelleri is unsuitable as a food for 2-day old sandfish larvae. TISO was well ingested by sandfish larvae in both live and concentrated forms and live TISO was the most suitable of the microalgae tested in terms of ingestion and digestibility. All commercially available microalgae concentrates tested were readily ingested and digested by H. scabra larvae with the exception of Thalassiosira pseudonana (3H 1800®) which was not ingested by larvae of any of the three ages tested. Our results show potential for using microalgae concentrates as alternatives to live microalgae in hatchery culture of sandfish. However, further research should be conducted to assess the relative nutritional values of digestible microalgae as a basis for optimising a diet for hatchery culture of sandfish, and to provide further information on the nutritional requirements of sandfish larvae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed integration of sea grapes (Caulerpa lentillifera) into a sandfish (Holothuria scabra) and Babylon snail (Babylonia areolata) co-culture system. Five culture combinations were assessed for yield (growth and survival) and water and sediment quality over 84 days at the National Centre for Marine Breeding, Van Ninh, Khanh Hoa Province, Vietnam. Final yield of sandfish per tank was similar with Babylonia (245.82 ± 34.86 g) and without (258.29 ± 40.03 g). Sandfish survival was not affected by culture with Caulerpa , however mean individual weight gain was much greater without the seaweed. Final sandfish yield when cultured with Caulerpa was 177.62 ± 13.21 g per tank, and 326.50 ± 32.73 g per tank without. Babylonia growth, survival and final yield was unaffected by co-culture. Caulerpa growth was also unaffected by co-culture combination. Babylonia raised total ammonia and total nitrogen concentrations and increased sediment organic matter, total sulphur and total nitrogen. Total ammonia was reduced in treatments containing Caulerpa. Our results showed positive production of each of the three commodities when they were grown together within the same system. However, further research is required at a larger scale to further evaluate the viability and potential yields of this combination at a commercial level, and to produce improved production information supporting detailed cost-benefit analysis. • Co-culture combinations of sandfish, Babylonia and Caulerpa were assessed for the first time. • Babylonia was the principle driver of increased dissolved nitrogen in co-culture systems • Dissolved nitrogen levels were reduced when Caulerpa was included in the co-culture system. • Sandfish, Babylonia and Caulerpa showed positive growth in collective co-culture systems. • Our positive results support further research at larger scales supporting cost-benefit analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]