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Objective: To describe the management and outcome of limb fractures in small domestic equids treated with a modified Thomas splint-cast combination (MTSCC)., Study Design: Retrospective case series., Animals: Client owned horses and donkeys., Methods: Medical records, including radiographs, were reviewed for details of animals diagnosed with a limb fracture and treated by external coaptation using a MTSCC (2001-2012). Follow-up >6 months after discharge was obtained via telephone consultation with owners or veterinarians., Results: Nine horses and 4 donkeys were identified with fractures of the tibial diaphysis (n = 4), ulna (n = 3), distal metatarsus (n = 2), proximal metacarpus (n = 1), radial diaphysis (n = 1), calcaneus (n = 1), and distal femoral physis (n = 1). Follow-up was available for 12 equids, of which 8 (67%) recovered from the fracture and became pasture sound. Six equids developed obvious external deformation of the affected limb., Conclusion: Selected small equids with long bone fractures, and without athletic expectations, can be managed with external coaptation using an MTSCC. The owner should be informed that the treatment is considered a salvage procedure., (© 2017 The American College of Veterinary Surgeons.)

Lameness due to stifle and especially meniscal lesions is frequent in equine species. In humans, mechanoreceptors involved in proprioceptive function are well studied. Given the high incidence of meniscal injuries in horses, and the lack of information concerning them in equine menisci, our objective was to study these corpuscles in six healthy anterior horns of the equine medial meniscus, which is the most common localisation reported for equine meniscal injuries. Immunohistochemical stainings were performed using antibodies against high molecular weight neurofilaments and glial fibrillary acidic proteins. From a purely fundamental point of view, our work highlights for the first time the presence of Ruffini, Pacini and Golgi corpuscles in equine meniscus. They were found, isolated or in clusters and always located at the vicinity of blood vessels, at the level of the anterior horn of the equine medial meniscus. This morphological approach could serve as a basis for clinical studies, to evaluate the impact of these corpuscles on the poor sportive prognosis in equine meniscal tears., (© 2015 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

Equine neutrophil elastase (NE) is a protease released in inflammatory diseases and participating in tissue destruction. To measure NE in horse plasma to assess its role in pathological conditions, we purified elastase from equine neutrophils by a double step chromatography and obtained a pure protein of 27 kDa, 4 kDa smaller than the NE 2A previously purified (Scudamore et al., 1993; Dagleish et al., 1999), which was likely to be NE 2B. We developed an ELISA by using two specific polyclonal antibodies obtained from rabbit and guinea pig. The sandwich complex was detected using a secondary antibody conjugated to alkaline phosphatase. The ELISA showed good precision and accuracy, with intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation below 10% for equine NE concentrations ranging from 1.875 to 60 ng/ml. A stable plasma NE value, unaffected by the delay of centrifugation (over 4h), was obtained with plasma from EDTA anticoagulated blood. The mean value (+/-SEM) measured in 37 healthy horses was 32.53+/-4.6 ng/ml. NE level in plasma of horses with colic at the time of admission was significantly higher than in healthy horses. Our results indicate that the ELISA technique we developed to measure plasmatic NE is a powerful tool for studying the role of elastase in equine inflammatory disease. In future, the application will be extended to other equine biological fluids., (Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The previous experiments have shown that some phenothiazines have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties in vitro. In this study the inhibition of the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by neutrophils was studied in two groups of horses, which received a dose of 0.1 mg/kg of either acepromazine or promethazine intravenously. Blood samples were collected before (T0) and 0.5, 1, 3 and 5 h after drug administration. The chemiluminescence (CML) response of neutrophils was measured ex vivo in the presence of luminol for a period of 10 min and the maximum CML value (peak value) recorded. There was a significant inhibition of the ROS production in the acepromazine treated group (49% inhibition) at 5 h after administration and in the promethazine group (24% inhibition) at 3 h after administration (P < 0.05 vs. T0). These findings are of therapeutic relevance in the use of phenothiazines in equine patients with inflammatory diseases where neutrophil activation and ROS production are implicated.

Developmental osteochondral lesions are often encountered in the equine population and are a major cause of lameness. Different growth factors that act systemically as well as locally regulate the growth of cartilage. Among them is Insulin-like Growth Factor I that has been demonstrated to promote chondrocyte growth and differentiation and that has been shown to influence cartilage repair. The aims of this study were to investigate differences in circulating plasma levels of Insulin-like Growth Factor-I in post-pubescent horses affected with developmental osteochondral lesions compared to unaffected ones. Significantly higher values of circulating Insulin-like Growth Factor-I levels were found in the affected group (n = 82) compared to controls (n = 86). This result may still reflect an earlier imbalance in IGF-I levels from horses with developmental osteochondral lesions considering the aetiopathological link which has been made between IGF-I and the occurrence of osteochondrosis. However, other studies have shown increased expression of IGF-I after cartilage damage. The higher levels found in this study could be due to a healing response of the cartilage to the damage caused by the osteochondral lesions.

Establishing the osteoarticular status of the horse is often performed by means of radiological screening of the animals. Widespread blood sampling could reveal to be an interesting alternative to this procedure which is time consuming and sometimes technically difficult. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the radiological status of the horses and the levels of biochemical markers of cartilage degradation and synovial inflammation. A specific radiological scoring and classification system was therefore developed and applied on 63 stallions presented for studbook admission. Additionally, groups of horses were established according to the occurrence of osteochondrosis, degenerative joint disease and distal interphalangeal joint effusion. Insulin growth factor-I, myeloperoxidases, Coll2-1 and Coll2-1NO(2) were used as blood markers. The combination of the blood parameters did not seem to correlate with the used scoring system. Coll2-1NO(2) levels however tended to increase with poorer radiological class and this could therefore potentially be a useful predictor of the osteoarticular status in the horse. Coll2-1 levels were significantly higher in the degenerative joint disease group. A high percentage of horses with distal interphalangeal joint effusion was present in this study and was associated with decreased IGF-I and increased Coll2-1 levels.

In the horse, the inflammation response to various pathologies (intestinal strangulations, laminitis, etc.) involves an excessive stimulation of the polymorphonuclear neutrophils releasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and myeloperoxidase (MPO). The aim of the present work was to study the effect of natural polyphenols, curcuminoids and tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC) on isolated stimulated equine neutrophils and on the activity of purified MPO. The ROS production and the release of MPO by activated neutrophils were measured by chemiluminescence and ELISA techniques, respectively. The activity of purified MPO was measured by studying its nitration, chlorination or oxidation capacity and by using an original method called SIEFED allowing the study of drug interaction with the enzyme without interferences of the medium. Curcuminoids and THC had dose-dependent inhibitory effects on ROS production and MPO release by activated neutrophils and on purified MPO activity. We suggest that the higher efficacy of curcuminoids versus THC could be explained, at least partially, by its chemical structure: the conjugated double bounds and the plane structure of curcuminoids made easier the neutralization of the radical species generated by activated neutrophils and the interaction of the drug with the active site of MPO. These inhibitory effects of curcuminoids on the oxidant activity of equine neutrophils and on MPO activity open therapeutic perspectives in equine pathologies with excessive inflammatory reactions.

An original method called SIEFED (specific immunological extraction followed by enzymatic detection) was developed for the specific detection of the activity of equine myeloperoxidase (MPO). The method consists of the extraction of MPO from aqueous solutions by immobilized anti-MPO antibodies followed by washing (to eliminate proteins and interfering molecules) and measurement of MPO activity using a detection system containing a fluorogenic substrate, hydrogen peroxide, and nitrite as reaction enhancer. The SIEFED technique was applied to study active MPO in horse biological fluids and the effects of 2 polyphenolic molecules, curcumin and resveratrol, on MPO activity. The detection limit of the SIEFED was 0.23 mU/ml. The SIEFED exhibited good precision with intra-assay and interassay coefficients of variation below 10% and 20%, respectively, for MPO activities ranging from 0.25 to 6.4 mU/ml. The activity of MPO was generally higher than 1 mU/ml in the fluids collected from horses with inflammatory diseases. Curcumin and resveratrol exerted a dose-dependent inhibition on MPO activity and, as they were removed before the enzymatic detection of MPO, the results suggest a direct drug-nzyme interaction or an enzyme structure modification by the drug. The SIEFED is a new tool that would be useful for specific detection of active MPO in complex media and for selection of MPO activity modulators.

Shock is accompanied by generalised splanchnic hypoperfusion, and splanchnic organs like the pancreas can be damaged, as shown in animal experimental models and in humans, by the presence of high plasma concentrations of trypsin and other pancreatic enzymes. In order to design a radioimmunoassay technique (RIA) for the measurement of equine trypsin-like immunoreactivity (TLI) in biological fluids, trypsin was purified (with purity > or = 96%) from the equine pancreas by extraction in an acid medium, ammonium sulfate precipitations, gel filtration chromatography and, after activation of trypsinogen into trypsin, affinity chromatography. Gel polyacrylamide electrophoresis showed a monomeric enzyme with a molecular weight of 27 kDa. The purified equine trypsin served for the immunisation of rabbits in order to obtain a specific antiserum, and the labelled antigen was prepared by iodination of equine trypsin with 125I. The RIA was based on the binding of the antigen to the antibody followed by the separation of the antigen-antibody complex by immunoprecipitation in the presence of sheep anti-rabbit gammaglobulins and the assay of the radioactivity in the precipitate. The RIA showed good sensitivity, specificity, precision, accuracy and reproducibility. The reference mean value of TLI in the plasma of healthy horses (n = 20) was 30.01+/-6.84 ng/mL (upper confidence limit 50.52 ng/mL; p < 0.01). Three horses with non strangulating intestinal obstruction without shock showed TLI values within normal limits whereas 5 of 7 horses with strangulation obstruction showed TLI levels above the upper confidence limit. Further studies using the RIA and the enzymatic assay should be performed in order to confirm the role of the pancreas in equine intestinal obstruction.

Gastrointestinal disorders in horses leading to endotoxic shock could have further consequences on other splanchnic organs such as the pancreas, as can be seen in humans suffering from septic shock. In this study, the range of enzymatically active trypsin (EAT) in healthy horses was established and is similar to the range observed in healthy humans. EAT values were determined in horses with acute abdominal crises on admission as well as during anaesthesia and in the postoperative phase. A significant increase in plasma EAT was found in 59% of the horses with surgical colic when compared to our established reference range. Significantly higher values were found in severe shock cases. When separated in groups according to the duration of colic before referral, significantly higher EAT values were observed in the non-survivor group compared to the survivor group of colics of short duration. EAT plasma values increased significantly during the postoperative phase, and were significantly higher in small intestine obstructions than in large bowel disorders. In human medicine, hypovolaemic or septic shock patients show an increase in pancreatic proteases. Splanchnic hypoperfusion during shock could lead to pancreatic damage resulting in trypsin liberation into the peritoneal space and an increase in plasma levels. Trypsin is able to activate inflammatory cascades and leucocytes and could play a role in multiple organ failure. Further studies are needed to evaluate the implications of changes in plasma trypsin in the disease process of equine acute abdomen and to demonstrate possible pancreatic damage., (Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Adaptation of an in-foot shoe force sensor and the gait analysis system 'Fscan' makes it possible to monitor the distribution of the vertical forces under the equine foot in motion. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of two different trimmings on forces under the foot during the trot. The first one increased the height of the lateral hoof wall and the second one restored the mediolateral balance of the foot. These two trimmings were examined by using a radiographical method that quantifies the interphalangeal articular asymmetries due to asymmetrical bearing. The location of the centre of force of the weight-bearing foot and the distribution of the forces applied to the lateral and medial solar surfaces during a stride were analyzed. After optimal trimming, the centre of force of the weight-bearing foot tended to approach the centre of the palmar figure, perpendicular to the distal interphalangeal joint centre. The sum of the forces recorded under the lateral and medial parts respectively of the foot during one stride tended to balance out after corrective trimming.

This study is part of a work to develop a radiographic method that defines objectively the individual conformation of an equine digit and its appropriate trimming. The authors used isolated distal limbs fastened on a rotation support with variable inclinations to study the influence of induced asymmetric bearings on various angles measured from specific radiographs. The digit responded to asymmetric bearings by 1. deformation of the hoof; 2. rotation of the phalanges; and 3. joint asymmetry or local articular space narrowing. The two last situations occurred mainly in the distal interphalangeal joint. Some of the angles mentioned above allow quantification of interphalangeal articular asymmetry, angular deformity and rotational deviation of a distal limb.

This study is part of a work to develop a radiographic method that defines objectively the individual conformation of an equine digit and its appropriate trimming. The authors used isolated distal limbs on a rotation support to study the influence of induced foot rotations on several angles measured from specific radiographs. The results of this work enabled the authors to quantify the rotation of the proximal phalanx compared to the distal, and to determine exactly the possible rotation in the distal interphalangeal joint. It was also observed that, faced with a forced rotation of the foot, the digit responded by a hoof plastic deformity, a distal interphalangeal intra-articular rotation and asymmetrical interphalangeal compressions.

The authors used a new radiological method to assess asymmetrical articular compression of the interphalangeal joints. This method was based on the measurements of 3 angles obtained on dorsopalmar radiographs. Variations of these angles were studied during experimental asymmetrical bearing on unshod feet. It was concluded that 2 angles were interesting parameters to assess asymmetrical articular compression and to define the position of the phalanx in the horny box. Furthermore, variations of these angles induced by experimental asymmetrical bearing were compared without shoe, with a standard shoe and with an orthopaedic full rolling motion shoe. It was observed that the effects of the asymmetrical bearing were reduced when feet were shod with a full rolling motion shoe.

Summary: Chronic orocutaneous, oronasal, or orosinus fistulae can be challenging to repair. This report describes placement of a dental bridge as a treatment for oral fistulae and outcome in two horses. A 12‐year‐old, Westphalian gelding was presented for nasal discharge because of an oromaxillary fistula after dental repulsion of the Triadan 209 4 years earlier. The second case, a 5‐year‐old Oldenburg mare was presented for an orocutaneous fistula 7 weeks after dental repulsion of the Triadan 208. Both were treated by placing an 8‐shaped cerclage wire, inserted through the rostral and caudal interdental spaces and crossing at the level of the missing tooth. Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) was then used to seal the fistula. No significant complications occurred during or after the surgery. In both cases clinical signs did not recur. In the first case the dental bridge is currently (5 years after the intervention) in place. In Case 2 the construction was removed after 1.5 years and the fistula had healed completely. This case report suggests that placing a dental bridge composed of cerclage wire and PMMA should be considered as an easy, noninvasive and efficient way to manage large oromaxillary or orocutaneous fistulae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Blood oxygen transport and oxygen extraction were assessed in horses with colic. A gravity score (GS) ranging from 1 to 3 was attributed to each colic case with healthy horses used as controls. Jugular venous and carotid arterial blood samples were collected and concentrations of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, adenosine triphosphate, inorganic phosphate and chloride were determined, pH and partial pressures of carbon dioxide (PCO2), and oxygen (PO2) were also measured. Oxygen equilibrium curves (OEC) were constructed under standard conditions and oxygen extraction ratios calculated. Haemoglobin oxygen affinity measured under standard conditions (P50std) was unchanged in colic horses compared with healthy controls. Horses with the highest GS, i.e. 3 had lower blood pH values than healthy animals. Arterial and venous partial pressures of oxygen at 50% haemoglobin saturation (P50a and P50v) were significantly higher in horses suffering from colic (GS = 3) than in healthy horses. The oxygen extraction ratio was also significantly increased in colic horses with a GS of 3. A rise in the oxygen extraction ratio detected in the most severely affected animals seemed to reflect the compensatory properties of the oxygen transport system where extraction of oxygen from the blood increases when systemic oxygen delivery decreases, as might be anticipated in horses with colic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]