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Heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction (HFpEF) is a serious condition with a constantly increasing prevalence which is in correlation with the increase of this disease's risk factors incidence (obesity, arterial hypertension, diabetes, etc.) and the aging of the population. The first challenge is the diagnosis of HFpEF. Two score-based algorithms have been proposed by the European (ESC HFA-PEFF score) and the American (ACC/AHA H2FpEF score) Cardiology Societies to help the clinician in the differential diagnosis of exertional dyspnea; these scores include the association of various signs of elevated ventricular filling pressures at rest and/or during exercise. According to the ESC recommendations, the management of HFpEF is currently based on symptomatic treatment with diuretics, treatment of co-morbidities and treatment of the underlying etiology if it is identified at the end of the diagnostic approach. The prognosis of this disease is pejorative because no treatment had demonstrated its effectiveness for all HFpEF phenotypes in controlled studies until now. The management algorithm could change soon due to the publication of the EMPEROR-Preserved study, which demonstrated the efficacy of empagliflozin, an SGLT2 inhibitor, concerning a significant reduction of the mortality rate and cardiac hospitalization, regardless of left ventricular ejection fraction. That said, there are many ongoing studies in the field, and treatment prospects will likely be more targeted on the HFpEF phenotype in a near future, due to the heterogeneous nature of this clinical entity.L’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection du ventricule gauche préservée (HFpEF) est une affection grave dont l’incidence est en constante majoration en relation avec l’augmentation de la prévalence des facteurs de risque de la maladie (obésité, hypertension artérielle, diabète, ...) et du vieillissement de la population. La première difficulté est de poser le diagnostic d’HFpEF. Deux algorithmes basés sur des scores ont été proposés par les Sociétés Européenne (ESC HFA–PEFF score) et Américaine (ACC/AHA H2FpEF score) de Cardiologie afin d’aider le clinicien dans le diagnostic différentiel d’une dyspnée d’effort. Ces algorithmes recherchent l’association de différents signes d’élévation des pressions de remplissage ventriculaire gauche au repos et/ou à l’effort. La prise en charge de l’HFpEF selon les recommandations de la Société Européenne de Cardiologie (ESC) reste actuellement basée sur le traitement symptomatique par les diurétiques, le traitement des comorbidités, et sur le traitement de l’étiologie sous-jacente si elle est identifiée au terme de la mise au point diagnostique. Le pronostic de cette maladie est péjoratif puisque, jusqu’à présent, aucun traitement n’avait prouvé son efficacité pour tous les phénotypes d’HFpEF dans des études contrôlées. L’algorithme de prise en charge pourrait évoluer prochainement en raison de la publication de l’étude EMPEROR-Preserved qui a démontré l’efficacité de l’empagliflozine, un inhibiteur SGLT2, par une réduction significative du taux de mortalité et d’hospitalisation pour cause cardiaque, indépendamment de la fraction d’éjection du ventricule gauche. Cela dit, de nombreuses études sont en cours dans le domaine, et les perspectives de traitement seront probablement plus ciblées en fonction du phénotype d’HFpEF, car cette entité clinique présente un caractère hétérogène.

Cardio-oncology is a new interdisciplinary specialty that has emerged over the past ten years. With the development of increasingly potent cancer therapies which improve cancer survival, but at the cost of cardiovascular toxicity, the demand for specialized cardio-oncology services has emerged. Also, cardiovascular diseases are more common and more serious in cancer patients than in the general population. Cardio-oncology focuses on the prevention, detection, monitoring, and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in cancer patients, mostly those occurring as a side effect of chemo- and radiotherapy.La cardio-oncologie est une nouvelle spécialité interdisciplinaire apparue au cours des dix dernières années. Avec le développement de thérapies anticancéreuses de plus en plus puissantes qui améliorent la survie au cancer, mais régulièrement au prix d’une toxicité cardiovasculaire, est apparue une demande de services spécialisés en cardio-oncologie. Par ailleurs, les maladies cardiovasculaires sont plus fréquentes et plus graves chez les patients atteints de cancer que dans la population générale. La cardio-oncologie se concentre sur la prévention, la détection, la surveillance et le traitement des maladies cardiovasculaires survenant chez les patients atteints de cancer et, principalement, la prise en charge des effets secondaires de la chimiothérapie et de la radiothérapie.

The diagnosis of heart failure can sometimes be challenging for the clinician because presentation circumstances and heart failure phenotypes are varied. The identification and validation of sensitive and specific biomarkers for this condition are still a subject of intensive research. Among them, natriuretic peptides (ANP, BNP, NTproBNP) are widely used and validated as markers of heart failure. Their appropriate use and correct interpretation, however, require knowledge of their indications, specificities and limitations. The European Society of Cardiology has recently issued recommendations in this regard. This article summarizes them in order to facilitate the understanding and the use of natriuretic peptides in clinical practice. It also discusses their use in the etiological diagnosis of pleural effusions caused by heart failure.Le diagnostic d’insuffisance cardiaque peut parfois mettre en difficulté le clinicien tant les circonstances de présentation et les phénotypes de cette pathologie sont variés. L’identification et la validation de biomarqueurs sensibles et spécifiques à cette condition particulière font toujours l’objet d’une recherche intensive. Parmi eux, les peptides natriurétiques (ANP, BNP, NTproBNP) sont largement utilisés et validés comme marqueurs de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Leur usage approprié et leur interprétation correcte requièrent, toutefois, la connaissance de leurs indications, spécificités et limitations. La Société Européenne de Cardiologie a récemment publié des recommandations à cet égard. Cet article propose d’en résumer les lignes principales afin de faciliter l’utilisation des peptides natriurétiques en pratique clinique. Il aborde, aussi, leur utilisation dans le diagnostic étiologique des épanchements pleuraux.

The introduction of basic treatment for heart failure dates to the late 1990s. Since that time, apart from a few new developments reserved for selected patients, there has been little progress. During these years, the epidemiology of the disease has evolved. The number of patients is constantly increasing and the prognosis is often darker than most oncological pathologies. With the arrival of the sacubitril/valsartan combination, Entresto®, a new therapeutic class has emerged. It has shown a significant reduction in mortality and hospitalizations for heart failure. The additional benefits to be expected from this molecule are still being evaluated. Significant positive remodeling seems to be a reality for many patients. This spectacular advance, however, is not the final solution. In addition, patients with preserved heart failure do not seem to benefit the same from this molecule. Other advances are being assessed. Sacubitril/valsartan is the first revolution, perhaps, in a long series.L’introduction du traitement de base de l’insuffisance cardiaque remonte à la fin des années 90. Depuis cette époque, à part quelques nouveautés réservées à certains patients, on ne retient que peu d’évolution. Pendant ces années, l’épidémiologie de la maladie a évolué. Le nombre de patients est en constante augmentation et le pronostic est, bien souvent, plus sombre que la plupart des pathologies oncologiques. Avec l’arrivée récente de l’association sacubitril/valsartan, Entresto®, une nouvelle classe thérapeutique est apparue. Elle a démontré une diminution significative de la mortalité et des hospitalisations dans l’insuffisance cardiaque à fonction altérée. Les bénéfices complémentaires à attendre de cette molécule sont toujours en cours d’évaluation. Un remodelage positif significatif semble être une réalité pour bon nombre de patients. Cette avancée spectaculaire n’est, cependant, pas la solution définitive. De plus, les patients insuffisants cardiaque à fonction préservée ne semblent pas tirer le même bénéfice de cette molécule. D’autres avancées sont en cours d’expertise. Le sacubitril/valsartan est la première révolution, peut-être, d’une longue série.

Eighteen years after the birth of the concept, TAVI (Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation) has established itself as the treatment of choice for symptomatic patients with severe aortic valve stenosis at high surgical risk. Unlike surgical prosthesis, the benefit of which has been validated in observational studies, indications for TAVI are now based on the results of large randomized trials. The TAVI revolution continues today with the miniaturization of the equipment, the development of new closure systems, the availability of a wider range of prosthesis sizes and the growing experience of operators, all contributing to the widening of indications to lower risk patients.Dix-huit ans après la naissance du concept, le TAVI («Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation») s’est affirmé comme un traitement de choix chez les patients symptomatiques avec rétrécissement valvulaire aortique serré à haut risque chirurgical. Contrairement aux prothèses chirurgicales, dont le bénéfice a été validé dans des études observationnelles, les indications concernant le TAVI s’appuient, aujourd’hui, sur les résultats de larges essais randomisés. La révolution du TAVI continue encore actuellement avec la miniaturisation du matériel, le développement de nouveaux systèmes de fermeture, la disponibilité d’un plus large éventail de tailles de prothèse et l’expérience croissante des opérateurs, le tout contribuant à l’élargissement des indications aux patients à risque intermédiaire.

The «Prospective Comparison of ARNI with ARB Global Outcomes in HF with Preserved Ejection Fraction» (PARAGON HF) trial is a multicenter, randomized, double-blind study comparing the incidence of heart failure hospitalization and cardiovascular mortality in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) treated with sacubitril/valsartan (Entresto®) versus valsartan alone. After a median follow-up of 35 months, the primary endpoint was reduced by 13 % in the sacubitril/valsartan group compared to the valsartan group (relative risk: 0.87, 95 % IC: 0.753-1.005, p = 0.058). Despite this lack of significance, the incidence of hospitalizations for heart failure was reduced (RR 0.85, 95 % CI: 0.72-1.00), whereas no benefit was observed on cardiovascular mortality. A subgroup analysis suggested that women and patients with an intermediate ejection fraction could get more benefit from the treatment. Concerning secondary criteria, a significant improvement in quality of life and in heart failure symptoms was observed in the group sacubitril/valsartan. There was a greater incidence of arterial hypotension and angioneurotic edema, but a lower incidence of hyperkalemia in the group sacubitril/valsartan.L’étude PARAGON HF («Prospective Comparison of ARNI with ARB Global Outcomes in HF with Preserved Ejection Fraction») a comparé le sacubitril / valsartan (Entresto®) au valsartan seul, chez les patients insuffisants cardiaques (IC) à fraction d’éjection préservée (HFpEF), sur base d’un critère de jugement principal composite associant le total des hospitalisations pour IC et la mortalité cardiovasculaire. Après un suivi médian de 35 mois, une réduction non significative de 13 % du critère de jugement principal a été observée dans le groupe sacubitril/valsartan comparativement au groupe valsartan seul (risque relatif : 0,87, IC 95 % : 0,753-1,005, p = 0,058). En dépit de l’absence de significativité, la réduction du risque n’en demeure pas moins importante puisqu’elle concerne surtout les hospitalisations pour IC (RR 0,85, IC 95 % : 0,72-1,00), alors qu’aucun bénéfice n’est observé sur la mortalité cardiovasculaire. Une analyse de sous-groupe suggère que les femmes et les patients ayant une fraction d’éjection intermédiaire tirent davantage de bénéfice du traitement par sacubitril/valsartan. Concernant les critères secondaires, on notait une amélioration significative de la qualité de vie, une réduction de la symptomatologie liée à l’IC ainsi qu’une amélioration de la fonction rénale. Enfin, les patients dans le groupe sacubitril/valsartan avaient une incidence plus importante d’hypotension artérielle et d’œdème angioneurotique, mais une plus faible incidence d’hyperkaliémie, comparativement au groupe valsartan seul.

Anemia and iron deficiency are two common comorbidities in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and are associated with a poor prognosis. In contrast to iron oral supplementation, administration of intravenous ferric carboxymaltose (Injectafer®) improves quality of life, exercise capacity, and seems to reduce hospitalizations for heart failure. Unfortunately, although anaphylactic reactions are extremely rare, it is recommended to administer Injectafer® in a suitable medical environment. This limitation hinders Injectafer® administration and may cause reluctance from both physician and patient. The aim of this article is to optimize and harmonize management of iron deficiency in heart failure, by proposing a simple solution for the patient and the practitioner.L’anémie et la carence martiale sont deux comorbidités fréquentes dans l’insuffisance cardiaque à fraction d’éjection réduite (HFrEF) et sont associées à un moins bon pronostic. Contrairement à la supplémentation martiale per os, l’administration de carboxymaltose ferrique intraveineux (Injectafer®) améliore la qualité de vie, la capacité à l’effort et semble réduire les hospitalisations pour insuffisance cardiaque. Bien que les réactions anaphylactiques soient extrêmement rares, il est recommandé d’administrer l’Injectafer® dans un environnement médical adapté. Ceci entraîne des contraintes d’administration qui peuvent susciter une réticence de la part du médecin et du patient. Cet article a pour objectif d’optimaliser et d’harmoniser la prise en charge de la carence martiale dans l’insuffisance cardiaque, en proposant une solution simple pour le patient et le soignant.

Treatment outcomes for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), defined as TB caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains resistant to both isoniazid (INH) and rifampin (RMP), are significantly worse than for drug-susceptible TB, but have varied widely.1–4 Moreover, patients documented as having a good outcome do not always do well over time.5–8 However, few reports have documented longer term follow-up of patients uniformly treated with second-line agents. Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB), defined as MDR-TB that is additionally resistant to a fluoroquinolone and an injectable second-line drug (SLD), is even more difficult to treat than MDR-TB;9–13 however, relatively little has been documented about the risks of developing XDR-TB during and after the treatment of MDR-TB.14 Political change and economic difficulties in Russia in the 1990s contributed to difficulties obtaining medications, which increased the incidence of MDR-TB.15 By 2000, the prevalence of MDR-TB among newly treated patients in some oblasts exceeded 9%.16 Treatment success, and risk factors associated with outcome, among patients in MDR-TB treatment programs in countries of the former Soviet Union have varied.4,9,17,18 A better appreciation of these differences in treatment outcome may help elucidate reasons for treatment success or failure, and guide programmatic policy. The Orel Oblast DOTS-Plus Tuberculosis Treatment Project was one of the first Green Light Committee (GLC) approved programs in the Russian Federation specifically designed to treat MDR-TB with individualized regimens. The first cohort began enrollment in 2002, and the program has been active since. The purpose of this analysis was to investigate factors associated with poor treatment outcome in a cohort of MDR-TB cases enrolled in a DOTS-Plus project in Orel Oblast, Russia, and to describe cases with progression to XDR-TB during or after treatment.

Single-port laparoscopic surgery has been described for various colorectal conditions. Here, we report the first 4 single-port laparoscopic sigmoid colostomies for fecal diversion.A 1.5-cm-round incision was made on the skin at a previously marked colostomy site. A wound retractor was inserted and an access platform with four 5-mm trocars was attached to the wound retractor. The sigmoid colon was mobilized using electrocautery, laparoscopic scissors, or an advanced bipolar device. A standard Brooke colostomy was created through the initial skin incision.Four elective single-port laparoscopic diverting colostomies were performed. Indications included obstructing colon and rectal cancers and intractable Crohn's proctitis. The average operative time was 73 minutes (range, 53-105), and blood loss was minimal (50 mL). There were no intraoperative complications. Three of 4 patients received oral analgesia, and one patient received patient-controlled intravenous analgesia postoperatively. The average time to passage of flatus was 1 day. Diet was advanced either on the day of surgery or on postoperative day 1. The length of hospital stay ranged from 0 to 15 days.Single-port laparoscopic sigmoid colostomy is an effective technique that allows full intra-abdominal visualization and colonic mobilization while eliminating the need for additional skin incisions other than the colostomy site itself.

Background: The toxicity outcome of cancer patients receiving chemotherapy is difficult to predict. In this study the influence of malnutrition and inflammation on acute haematological toxicity was investigated. Patients and methods: Between January 1999 and January 2000, 48 consecutive cancer patients experienced severe haematological toxicity (SHT), either neutropenic fever or severe thrombocytopenia, following various chemotherapy regimens. Their baseline characteristics were compared with those of 59 control patients. Previous chemotherapy regimens, type of chemotherapy, performance status (PS), calculated creatinine clearance, bilirubin, C-reactive protein (1), alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (2), albumin (3), pre-albumin (4) and the nutritional and inflammatory status (NIS) ratio [NIS = (1 × 2)/(3 x 4)] were studied. Statistical analysis was carried out using either a t-test or a chi-square test. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve determined the cut-off value for NIS. Results: Patients experiencing SHT had a higher PS (P

High titers of Ag-specific human IgG were consistently achieved in SCID mice reconstituted with human splenocytes that had been primed with Ag in vitro and then boosted with Ag after engraftment into SCID mice. Specific human IgG titers in the hu-SPL-SCID mice reached approximately 1:4 × 105 when the mice were immunized with a neo-antigen, whereas titers reached 1:2 × 106 when recall responses were induced. Booster immunizations with Ag 21 days after the initial in vivo boost further enhanced this response, and specific human IgG titers of 1:17 × 106 were achieved. This represented an essentially monospecific IgG population. These responses were CD4+ T cell dependent. In addition, affinity maturation of the human Ab responses was observed. Spleens of hu-SPL-SCID mice with Ag-specific titers ≤1:1 × 106 were often significantly enlarged and often displayed visible tumors. Fourteen of sixteen B cell tumors removed from spleens of five such hu-SPL-SCID mice, produced Abs that were specific for the immunizing Ags. From such tumor, cloned cell lines were established. One such mAb, MLN-7 (γ1,κ), was raised to tetanus toxoid and had no identified cross-reactivity.

Know the impact of the unplanned deliveries in a town of medium size, the characteristics of these women and maternal and neonatal risks.This was a retrospective study conducted between January 2002 and December 2009. Unexpected delivery was defined as any delivery taking place outside of a non-elective way maternity. Each unexpected delivery was matched at nearest delivery of equivalent term, at the CHU maternity, with an onset of spontaneous labour.Ninety-four women gave birth unexpectedly for a total of 48,721 births (incidence of 0.19%). There was a significant difference between cases and controls for parity (1.8 versus 0.9), the lack of follow-up of pregnancy (21.3% versus 1.1%), tobacco (57.4% versus 25.5%), the socio-economic level, the type of feeding (artificial: 61.7% versus 30.6%), the home-hospital distance and obstetric follow-up. We found a significant increase in perinatal mortality (6.4% versus 1%) and stay in Neonatal ICU (19.1% versus 9.2%). The main neonatal morbidity was hypothermia.It is difficult to target a population at risk because the type of these women is non-specific. Prevention of unplanned deliveries and their morbidities through information of patients on the grounds of urgent consultation and support of the newborn to limit hypothermia.

Radiopharmaceuticals extravasation is rare but may have serious clinical issues. Because no specific recommendations are being proposed to date, the goals of our working group created within the French Society of Radiopharmacy are to determine preventive measures and to establish a pragmatic management of extravasation of these drugs. Our preventive measures are to recognize the symptoms (erythema, venous discoloration, swelling), to know the risk factors (which are related to radiopharmaceutical, patient, site of injection, injection technique) and severity (from erythema to skin necrosis, depending on the radionuclide) and how to avoid them (training and awareness of staff, choice of injection site, route of drug administration test, use of a catheter for administration of therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals). Management should be immediate. It can be facilitated by a specific emergency kit. General measures recommended are the immediate cessation of injection, aspiration of fluid extravasation, delimitation of the extravasated area with an indelible pen, informing the doctor. Specific measures taking into account the radiotoxicity of the radionuclide and the type of radiopharmaceutical were also established. The patient should be informed by the doctor about the risks and how to take care of. Traceability of the incident must be ensured. A multidisciplinary reflexion is essential to manage the extravasation as early and effectively as possible.

To report indications and risk factors for effective termination of pregnancy (TOP) when multidisciplinary prenatal diagnosis centers refuse request for TOP.This is a retrospective study from a French national registry between 2005 and 2009. Indication groups for TOP refusal were created. Risk factors for pregnancy outcomes and effective TOP were determined by multinomial logistic regression model.The overall number of TOP refusals was 573. Indications were single malformations (37%), chromosomal abnormalities (16.6%), hygroma (5.2%), potential fetopathies (11%), maternal indications (17.4%), and other indications (12.7%). Pregnancy outcomes were live infants (35.1%), effective TOP (36.3%), intra-uterine fetal death (5.4%), and lost to follow-up (23.2%). Logistic regression model showed an increased likelihood of effective TOP in groups with single malformations [odds ratio (OR) 3.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-7.4], chromosomal abnormalities (OR 3, 95% CI 1.2-7.2), and hygromas (OR 19.6, 95% CI 2.3-16.8) compared with other groups. An increased likelihood of effective TOP was also reported when the request was made at first (OR 29.5, 95% CI 10-16.7) and second (OR 6.3, 95% CI 2.3-16.7) trimesters compared with the third trimester.Effective TOP is particularly frequent when requested during the first trimester and in cases of structural anomalies of the fetus.

Water is a vital but poorly studied component of livestock production. It is estimated that livestock industries consume 8% of the global water supply, with most of that water being used for intensive, feed-based production. This study takes a broad perspective of livestock production as a component of the human food chain, and considers the efficiency of its water use. Global models are in the early stages of development and do not distinguish between developing and developed countries, or the production systems within them. However, preliminary indications are that, when protein production is adjusted for biological value in the human diet, no plant protein is significantly more efficient at using water than protein produced from eggs, and only soybean is more water efficient than milk and goat and chicken meat. In some regions, especially developing countries, animals are not used solely for food production but also provide draught power, fibre and fertiliser for crops. In addition, animals make use of crop by-products that would otherwise go to waste. The livestock sector is the fastest-growing agricultural sector, which has led to increasing industrialisation and, in some cases, reduced environmental constraints. In emerging economies, increasing involvement in livestock is related to improving rural wealth and increasing consumption of animal protein. Water usage for livestock production should be considered an integral part of agricultural water resource management, taking into account the type of production system (e.g. grain-fed or mixed crop-livestock) and scale (intensive or extensive), the species and breeds of livestock, and the social and cultural aspects of livestock farming in various countries.

The treatment of persons living with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune-deficiency syndrome (PLWHAs) for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) reduces tuberculosis (TB) morbidity. Despite a high TB burden and an expanding human immunodeficiency virus epidemic, Russia had limited data on the utility of the tuberculin skin test (TST) for LTBI diagnosis in PLWHAs.To determine the prevalence and predictors of positive TSTs in PLWHAs in Orel Oblast.A total of 150 consenting PLWHAs being followed up at the AIDS Center were administered a TST and a questionnaire for risk factors for LTBI. A positive TST result was defined asor=5 mm induration.Of the 150 subjects, 67% were male and 74% were aged30 years. Of the PLWHAs tested, 26% had a positive TST result, while among PLWHAs with CD4(+)500 cells/ml, 36% were TST-positive. TST positivity varied inversely with CD4(+) cell count. Among PLWHAs with a history of injection drug use, the primary risk factor for HIV, 29 (31.9%) were positive.A high proportion of tested PLWHAs had a positive TST and could benefit from preventive therapy (PT) to reduce the risk of TB. A TB control programme in Russia should therefore include TST screening among PLWHAs and PT, besides active TB case finding and treatment.

To evaluate the morbidity and mortality of Candida fungemia and to assess the efficacy of low- vs high-dose amphotericin B and fluconazole vs amphotericin B in patients with candidemia.Multicenter, prospective, observational study of 427 consecutive patients with candidemia.The mortality rate for patients with candidemia was 34%. The mortality rate for patients with catheter-related candidemia in whom the catheters were retained was significantly higher than that of patients in whom the catheters were removed (41% vs 21%, P.001). We found no overall difference in mortality in patients treated with low-dose (total amphotericin B dose ofor = 500 mg) (13%) vs high-dose amphotericin B (total amphotericin B dose of500 mg) (15%), but the group treated with a low dose had fewer side effects (40%) than those treated with a high dose (55%) (P = .03). Fluconazole was as efficacious as amphotericin B in the therapy of candidemia, even when stratified by risk factors for mortality. Fewer side effects were seen with fluconazole (12%) compared with amphotericin B (44%) (P.001).In selected patients with candidemia, low-dose amphotericin B was as efficacious as high-dose amphotericin B. Based on other studies and ours, fluconazole seems to be an alternative therapeutic option to amphotericin B in selected patients.

As specialized laboratory tests became more widely available, Legionella species were found to be common causes of nosocomial and community-acquired pneumonia. Patients with chronic lung disease and organ transplants are at greatest risk. Clinical manifestations are non-specific, although fever greater than 39 degrees C and diarrhea are common. Erythromycin remains the antibiotic of choice, although many alternative agents are available. Once cases are discovered, a search for the organism in water distribution systems and respiratory equipment can be fruitful. Disinfection of water distribution systems by superheating and flushing or by hyperchlorination is feasible.

Viral pneumonitis can affect all age groups and normal as well as compromised hosts. This article discusses salient features of pneumonitis caused by respiratory syncytial virus, adenoviruses, varicella-zoster virus, herpes simplex virus, influenza A and B viruses, and cytomegalovirus. The clinical picture, diagnosis, treatment and prevention for each agent are discussed.