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A binational team of investigators culturally adapted, implemented, and tested the efficacy in Mexico of keepin' it REAL, a US-designed prevention intervention for youth. This article reports on the social validity of the adapted intervention by assessing its feasibility, acceptability, and utility, as perceived by participating middle school students, teachers/implementers, and school administrators. Middle schools (N = 36) were randomly assigned to (1) the culturally adapted version for Mexico (Mantente REAL), (2) the original intervention from the USA (keepin' it REAL) translated into Spanish, or (3) a control condition (treatment as usual). Adult and child feedback about the adapted and original versions of the intervention indicate that both are feasible to implement in the Mexican context. Implementation fidelity was equally high for both versions of the manualized intervention. Students, however, were more satisfied with the culturally adapted version than with the non-adapted version. They reported gaining more knowledge, finding it more acceptable, applicable, and authentic, and they reported discussing the program with their family and friends more often. The findings support the feasibility of engaging classroom teachers to implement manualized prevention programs in Mexico. These findings also advance prevention science by documenting the importance of cultural adaptation as a means to increase students' identification with and acceptability of efficacious school-based interventions. The article discusses the practice, policy, and future prevention research implications of the findings for Mexico and their potential generalizability to other middle- and lower-income countries.

Background Major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) are highly prevalent among university students and predict impaired college performance and later life role functioning. Yet most students do not receive treatment, especially in low-middle-income countries (LMICs). We aim to evaluate the effects of expanding treatment using scalable and inexpensive Internet-delivered transdiagnostic cognitive behavioral therapy (iCBT) among college students with symptoms of MDD and/or GAD in two LMICs in Latin America (Colombia and Mexico) and to investigate the feasibility of creating a precision treatment rule (PTR) to predict for whom iCBT is most effective. Methods We will first carry out a multi-site randomized pragmatic clinical trial (N = 1500) of students seeking treatment at student mental health clinics in participating universities or responding to an email offering services. Students on wait lists for clinic services will be randomized to unguided iCBT (33%), guided iCBT (33%), and treatment as usual (TAU) (33%). iCBT will be provided immediately whereas TAU will be whenever a clinic appointment is available. Short-term aggregate effects will be assessed at 90 days and longer-term effects 12 months after randomization. We will use ensemble machine learning to predict heterogeneity of treatment effects of unguided versus guided iCBT versus TAU and develop a precision treatment rule (PTR) to optimize individual student outcome. We will then conduct a second and third trial with separate samples (n = 500 per arm), but with unequal allocation across two arms: 25% will be assigned to the treatment determined to yield optimal outcomes based on the PTR developed in the first trial (PTR for optimal short-term outcomes for Trial 2 and 12-month outcomes for Trial 3), whereas the remaining 75% will be assigned with equal allocation across all three treatment arms. Discussion By collecting comprehensive baseline characteristics to evaluate heterogeneity of treatment effects, we will provide valuable and innovative information to optimize treatment effects and guide university mental health treatment planning. Such an effort could have enormous public-health implications for the region by increasing the reach of treatment, decreasing unmet need and clinic wait times, and serving as a model of evidence-based intervention planning and implementation. Trial status IRB Approval of Protocol Version 1.0; June 3, 2020. Recruitment began on March 1, 2021. Recruitment is tentatively scheduled to be completed on May 30, 2024. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.govNCT04780542. First submission date: February 28, 2021.

Alterations in eating behavior characterized eating disorders (ED). The genetic factors shared between ED diagnoses have been underexplored. The present study performed a genome-wide association study in individuals with disordered eating behaviors in the Mexican population, blood methylation quantitative trait loci (blood-meQTL), summary data-based Mendelian randomization (SMR) analysis, and in silico function prediction by different algorithms. The analysis included a total of 1803 individuals. We performed a genome-wide association study and blood-meQTL analysis by logistic and linear regression. In addition, we analyzed in silico functional variant prediction, phenome-wide, and multi-tissue expression quantitative trait loci. The genome-wide association study identified 44 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) associated at a nominal value and seven blood-meQTL at a genome-wide threshold. The SNPs show enrichment in genome-wide associations of the metabolic and immunologic domains. In the in silico analysis, the SNP rs10419198 (p-value = 4.85 × 10−5) located on an enhancer mark could change the expression of PRR12 in blood, adipocytes, and brain areas that regulate food intake. Additionally, we found an association of DNA methylation levels of SETBP1 (p-value = 6.76 × 10−4) and SEMG1 (p-value = 5.73 × 10−4) by SMR analysis. The present study supports the previous associations of genetic variation in the metabolic domain with ED.

AIM: Exposure to traumatic events (TEs) is associated with substance use disorders (SUDs). However, most studies focus on a single TE, and are limited to single countries, rather than across countries with variation in economic, social and cultural characteristics. We used cross-national data to examine associations of diverse TEs with SUD onset, and variation in associations over time.METHODS: Data come from World Mental Health surveys across 22 countries. Adults (n = 65,165) retrospectively reported exposure to 29 TEs in six categories: "exposure to organised violence"; "participation in organised violence"; "interpersonal violence"; "sexual-relationship violence"; "other life-threatening events"; and those involving loved ones ("network traumas"). Discrete-time survival analyses were used to examine associations with subsequent first SUD onset.RESULTS: Most (71.0%) reported experiencing at least one TE, with network traumas (38.8%) most common and exposure to organised violence (9.5%) least. One in five (20.3%) had been exposed to sexual-relationship violence and 26.6% to interpersonal violence. Among the TE exposed, lifetime SUD prevalence was 14.5% compared to 5.1% with no trauma exposure. Most TE categories (except organised violence) were associated with increased odds of SUD. Increased odds of SUD were also found following interpersonal violence exposure across all age ranges (ORs from 1.56 to 1.78), and sexual-relationship violence exposure during adulthood (ORs from 1.33 to 1.44), with associations persisting even after >11 years.CONCLUSION: Sexual and interpersonal violence have the most consistent associations with progression to SUD; increased risk remains for many years post-exposure. These need to be considered when working with people exposed to such traumas.

AIM: We examined prevalence and factors associated with receiving perceived helpful alcohol use disorder (AUD) treatment, and persistence in help-seeking after earlier unhelpful treatment.METHODS: Data came from 27 community epidemiologic surveys of adults in 24 countries using the World Health Organization World Mental Health surveys (n = 93,843). Participants with a lifetime history of treated AUD were asked if they ever received helpful AUD treatment, and how many professionals they had talked to up to and including the first time they received helpful treatment (or how many ever, if they had not received helpful treatment).RESULTS: 11.8% of respondents with lifetime AUD reported ever obtaining treatment (n = 9378); of these, 44% reported that treatment was helpful. The probability of obtaining helpful treatment from the first professional seen was 21.8%; the conditional probability of subsequent professionals being helpful after earlier unhelpful treatment tended to decrease as more professionals were seen. The cumulative probability of receiving helpful treatment at least once increased from 21.8% after the first professional to 79.7% after the seventh professional seen, following earlier unhelpful treatment. However, the cumulative probability of persisting with up to seven professionals in the face of prior treatments being unhelpful was only 13.2%.CONCLUSION: Fewer than half of people with AUDs who sought treatment found treatment helpful; the most important factor was persistence in seeking further treatment if a previous professional had not helped. Future research should examine how to increase the likelihood that AUD treatment is found to be helpful on any given contact.

This study assesses the efficacy of a version of the keepin' it REAL (kiREAL) substance use prevention curriculum for middle school students that was culturally adapted for Mexico, renamed Mantente REAL (MREAL), and tested in a cluster randomized controlled trial in Mexico's three largest cities. Student participants were in 7th grade in public middle schools (N = 5523, 49% female, mean age = 11.9). A representative sample of 12 schools from each city, stratified by whether they held morning or afternoon sessions, was randomized to three conditions: culturally adapted MREAL, original kiREAL translated into Spanish, or a treatment-as-usual control group. Regular classroom teachers were trained to deliver the adapted MREAL or the kiREAL manualized curricula. Students with active parental consent completed pretest and post-test questionnaires, 7-8 months apart, at the beginning and end of the 2017-2018 academic year. We assessed the MREAL intervention, relative to kiREAL and controls, with general linear models adjusted for baseline, attrition (24%), non-normal distributions, stratification by city, and school-level clustering. Among students already using the substance more often at pretest, MREAL students had relatively more desirable outcomes, compared to kiREAL and/or to controls, in recent use of alcohol, cigarettes, "hard drugs," heavy episodic drinking, and intoxication. MREAL students reported relatively less violence victimization and perpetration of bullying and relatively more use of three of the intervention's REAL drug resistance strategies (Explain, Avoid, Leave). The adapted version of kiREAL for Mexico showed numerous desired outcomes in areas deliberately targeted in the cultural adaptation. Full protocol can be accessed through Clinical Trials.gov. ID: NCT03233386, "'Keepin' It REAL in Mexico: An adaptation and multisite RCT".

Background: Substance use disorders are among the most stigmatized conditions worldwide. People with substance use disorder (PWSUD) are often considered responsible for their use of drugs. The objectives are to analyze changes in Mexican attitudes toward PWSUD in the general population over the period 2011 to 2016 and to use the latest Mexican household survey to determine which segments of the population are most likely to have negative attitudes. Methods: Two representative national household surveys employing similar methodologies were conducted in Mexico in 2011 and 2016 with persons aged 12–65 years. Participants were asked about their attitudes toward PWSUD, and changes were compared across GLM. Results: The surveys found a decrease from 2011 to 2016 in the number of respondents who considered PWSUD “sick” or in “need of help” and an increase in the number who believed they were “selfish” or “criminal”. The 2016 survey found that men, people 18 years of age or older, people who do not use drugs and people with lower educational levels were the groups with the most negative attitudes toward PWSUD. Conclusions: These results suggest that it may not be recognized that PWSUD may have a health problem and that this helps to increase stigmatization towards this population.

BACKGROUND: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) included in 2013 Internet gaming disorder (IGD) as a condition for further study, and in 2018, the World Health Organization included gaming disorder (GD) as a mental disorder in the International Classification of Disease (ICD-11). We aim to compare disorders of gaming in both diagnostic systems using a sample of young adults in Mexico. METHODS: Self-administered survey to estimate the prevalence of DSM-5 IGD and ICD-11 GD in 5 Mexican universities; 7,022 first-year students who participated in the University Project for Healthy Students, part of the World Health Organization World Mental Health International College Student Initiative. Cross-tabulation, logistic regression, and item response theory were used to inform on 12- month prevalence of DSM-5 IGD and ICD-11 GD, without and with impairment. RESULTS: The 12-month prevalence of DSM-5 IGD was 5.2% (95% CI, 4.7 to 5.8), almost twice as high as the prevalence using the ICD-11 GD criteria (2.7%; 95% CI, 2.4 to 3.1), and while adding an impairment requirement diminishes both estimates, prevalence remains larger in DSM-5. We found that DSM-5 cases detected and undetected by ICD-11 criteria were similar in demographics, comorbid mental disorders, service use, and impairment variables with the exception that cases detected by ICD-11 had a larger number of symptoms and were more likely to have probable drug dependence than undetected DSM-5 cases. CONCLUSION: DSM-5 cases detected by ICD-11 are mostly similar to cases undetected by ICD-11. By using ICD-11 instead of DSM-5, we may be leaving (similarly) affected people underserved. It is unlikely that purely epidemiological studies can solve this discrepancy and clinical validity studies maybe needed.

Although there is a significant association between preexisting depression and later onset of chronic headache, the extent to which other preexisting mental disorders are associated with subsequent onset of headache in the general population is not known. Also unknown is the extent to which these associations vary by gender or by life course. We report global data from the WHO's World Mental Health surveys (n = 52,095), in which, by means of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview–3.0, 16 mental disorders from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition , were retrospectively assessed in terms of lifetime prevalence and age of onset. Frequent or severe headaches were assessed using self-reports. After adjustment for covariates, survival models showed a moderate but consistent association between preexisting mood (odds ratios [ORs] = 1.3–1.4), anxiety (ORs = 1.2–1.7), and impulse-control disorders (ORs = 1.7–1.9) and the subsequent onset of headache. We also found a dose-response relationship between the number of preexisting mental disorders and subsequent headache onset (OR ranging from 1.9 for 1 preexisting mental disorder to 3.4 for ≥5 preexisting mental disorders). Our findings suggest a consistent and pervasive relationship between a wide range of preexisting mental disorders and the subsequent onset of headaches. This highlights the importance of assessing a broad range of mental disorders, not just depression, as specific risk factors for the subsequent onset of frequent or severe headaches. Perspective This study shows that there is a temporal association between a broad range of preexisting mental disorders and the subsequent onset of severe or frequent headaches in general population samples across the world.

The objective of this study was to estimate the extent to which parental psychopathology may confer increased risk of suicide ideation and attempts among their offspring in Mexico. Data from a representative sample of 5,782 respondents participating in the Mexican National Comorbidity Survey (2001-2002) to examine the unique associations between parental psychopathology and offspring suicidality were used. Parental disorders (major depression, panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, substance dependence, and antisocial personality disorder) were comorbid and after controlling for comorbidity and number of disorders only parental panic and antisocial personality disorder remained associated with ideation and attempts in the total sample. Those with more parental disorders were at increased risk of ideation and attempt, as well as increased risk to transition from suicide ideation to an attempt. These findings may help inform clinical and public health efforts aimed at suicide prevention in Mexico and other developing countries.

Background We systematically reviewed availability and quality of data on the prevalence of use and dependence on meth/amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine and opioids. Methods Multiple search strategies: (a) peer-reviewed literature searches (1990–2008) using methods recommended by the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) group; (b) systematic searches of online databases; (c) Internet searches to find other published evidence of drug use; (d) repeated consultation and feedback from experts around the globe; (e) a viral email sent to lists of researchers in the illicit drug and HIV fields. Data were extracted and graded according to predefined variables reflecting quality of data source. Results Qualitative evidence of illicit drug use and dependence was found for most countries, which hold over 98% of the world's population aged 15–64 years. Countries where use was identified but prevalence estimates had not been made (evidence of drug supply, trafficking, reports of use, treatment data) were mainly from Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Oceania. Estimates of the prevalence of use were located in 77 countries for meth/amphetamine, 95 for cannabis, 86 for cocaine and 89 for opioids. Dependence prevalence estimates existed in very few countries; 9 meth/amphetamine dependence estimates, 7 cannabis dependence estimates, 5 cocaine dependence estimates, and 25 opioid dependence estimates were located. Conclusions Data on the extent of meth/amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine and opioid use and dependence must be improved in quality and coverage. Dependence estimates are lacking even in high income countries that have required resources. Responses to illicit drug dependence require better estimates of its scale.

Background Epidemiologic research has consistently found lower prevalence of alcohol and drug use disorders among Hispanic immigrants to the US than among US-born Hispanics. Recent research has begun to examine how this change occurs in the process of assimilation in the US. We aimed to study immigration, US nativity, and return migration as risk factors for alcohol and drug use among people of Mexican origin in both the US and Mexico. Methods Data come from nationally representative surveys in the United States (2001–2003; n = 1208) and Mexico (2001–2002; n = 5782). We used discrete time event history models to account for time-varying and time-invariant characteristics. Results We found no evidence that current Mexican immigrants in the US have higher risk for alcohol or alcohol use disorders than Mexicans living in Mexico, but current immigrants were at higher risk for drug use and drug use disorders. Current Mexican immigrants were at lower risk for drug use and drug disorders than US-born Mexican-Americans. US nativity, regardless of parent nativity, is the main factor associated with increasing use of alcohol and drugs. Among families of migrants and among return migrants we found increased risk for alcohol use, drug use and alcohol and drug use disorders. Evidence of selective migration and return of immigrants with disorders was found regarding alcohol use disorders only. Conclusions Research efforts that combine populations from sending and receiving countries are needed. This effort will require much more complex research designs that will call for true international collaboration.

BackgroundThe epidemiology of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder in the community is largely unknown.AimsTo investigate the epidemiological characteristics of rapid-cycling and non-rapid-cycling bipolar disorder in a large cross-national community sample.MethodThe Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI version 3.0) was used to examine the prevalence, severity, comorbidity, impairment, suicidality, sociodemographics, childhood adversity and treatment of rapid-cycling and non-rapid-cycling bipolar disorder in ten countries (n = 54 257).ResultsThe 12-month prevalence of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder was 0.3%. Roughly a third and two-fifths of participants with lifetime and 12-month bipolar disorder respectively met criteria for rapid cycling. Compared with the non-rapid-cycling, rapid-cycling bipolar disorder was associated with younger age at onset, higher persistence, more severe depressive symptoms, greater impairment from depressive symptoms, more out-of-role days from mania/hypomania, more anxiety disorders and an increased likelihood of using health services. Associations regarding childhood, family and other sociodemographic correlates were less clear cut.ConclusionsThe community epidemiological profile of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder confirms most but not all current clinically based knowledge about the illness.

Background: Although it is known that childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often persists into adulthood, childhood predictors of this persistence have not been widely studied.Methods: Childhood history of ADHD and adult ADHD were assessed in 10 countries in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Logistic regression analysis was used to study associations of retrospectively reported childhood risk factors with adult persistence among the 629 adult respondents with childhood ADHD. Risk factors included age; sex; childhood ADHD symptom profiles, severity, and treatment; comorbid child/adolescent DSM-IV disorders; childhood family adversities; and child/adolescent exposure to traumatic events.Results: An average of 50% of children with ADHD (range: 32.8%-84.1% across countries) continued to meet DSM-IV criteria for ADHD as adults. Persistence was strongly related to childhood ADHD symptom profile (highest persistence associated with the attentional plus impulsive-hyperactive type, odds ratio [OR] = 12.4, compared with the lowest associated with the impulsive-hyperactive type), symptom severity (OR = 2.0), comorbid major depressive disorder (MDD; OR = 2.2), high comorbidity (>= 3 child/adolescent disorders in addition to ADHD; OR = 1.7), paternal (but not maternal) anxiety mood disorder (OR = 2.4), and parental antisocial personality disorder (OR = 2.2). A multivariate risk profile of these variables significantly predicts persistence of ADHD into adulthood (area under the receiving operator characteristic curve = .76).Conclusions: A substantial proportion of children with ADHD continue to meet full criteria for ADHD as adults. A multivariate risk index comprising variables that can be assessed in adolescence predicts persistence with good accuracy.

We know little about predictors of injection drug cessation and relapse among female sex workers who inject drugs (FSW-PWID) at the US-Mexico border. Among HIV-negative FSW-PWID taking part in a behavioral intervention study in Tijuana and Ciudad Juárez, Cox regression was used to identify predictors of time to first cessation of injection, which was defined as reporting not having injected drugs for a period of 4 months or longer, and among that subset, we examined predictors of time to injection relapse. Among 440 women, 84 (19 %) reported ceasing injection during follow-up (median time to cessation = 9.3 months); of these, 30 (35 %) reported relapse to injection (median time to relapse = 3.5 months). The rate of injection cessation was lower for women reporting trading sex prior to age 18 (adj. hazard ratio (HR) = 0.64, 95 % confidence interval (CI) = 0.41–1.01), ever being sexually abused (adj. HR = 0.44, 95 % CI = 0.27–0.71), and a higher number of vaginal sex acts with casual clients (adj. HR = 0.99 per transaction, 95 % CI = 0.98–1.00). The rate of cessation was higher for women who spent more hours on the streets on a typical day (adj. HR = 1.04/h, 95 % CI = 1.01–1.08) and who lived in Tijuana vs. Ciudad Juárez (adj. HR = 2.15, 95 % CI = 1.14–4.07). The rate of relapse was higher among women reporting regular drug use with clients (adj. HR = 2.17, 95 % CI = 0.96–4.89) and those scoring higher on a risk injection index (adj. HR = 2.04, 95 % CI = 1.15–3.61). The rate of relapse was lower for FSW-PWID with higher than average incomes (adj. HR = 0.40, 95 % CI = 0.18–0.89). These findings have important implications for the scale-up of methadone maintenance treatment programs (MMTPs) in Mexico and indicate a need for gender-specific programs that address sexual abuse experiences and economic vulnerabilities faced by FSW-PWID.

Summary The burden of mental, neurological, and substance use (MNS) disorders increased by 41% between 1990 and 2010 and now accounts for one in every 10 lost years of health globally. This sobering statistic does not take into account the substantial excess mortality associated with these disorders or the social and economic consequences of MNS disorders on affected persons, their caregivers, and society. A wide variety of effective interventions, including drugs, psychological treatments, and social interventions, can prevent and treat MNS disorders. At the population-level platform of service delivery, best practices include legislative measures to restrict access to means of self-harm or suicide and to reduce the availability of and demand for alcohol. At the community-level platform, best practices include life-skills training in schools to build social and emotional competencies. At the health-care-level platform, we identify three delivery channels. Two of these delivery channels are especially relevant from a public health perspective: self-management (eg, web-based psychological therapy for depression and anxiety disorders) and primary care and community outreach (eg, non-specialist health worker delivering psychological and pharmacological management of selected disorders). The third delivery channel, hospital care, which includes specialist services for MNS disorders and first-level hospitals providing other types of services (such as general medicine, HIV, or paediatric care), play an important part for a smaller proportion of cases with severe, refractory, or emergency presentations and for the integration of mental health care in other health-care channels, respectively. The costs of providing a significantly scaled up package of specified cost-effective interventions for prioritised MNS disorders in low-income and lower-middle-income countries is estimated at US$3–4 per head of population per year. Since a substantial proportion of MNS disorders run a chronic and disabling course and adversely affect household welfare, intervention costs should largely be met by government through increased resource allocation and financial protection measures (rather than leaving households to pay out-of-pocket). Moreover, a policy of moving towards universal public finance can also be expected to lead to a far more equitable allocation of public health resources across income groups. Despite this evidence, less than 1% of development assistance for health and government spending on health in low-income and middle-income countries is allocated to the care of people with these disorders. Achieving the health gains associated with prioritised interventions will require not just financial resources, but committed and sustained efforts to address a range of other barriers (such as paucity of human resources, weak governance, and stigma). Ultimately, the goal is to massively increase opportunities for people with MNS disorders to access services without the prospect of discrimination or impoverishment and with the hope of attaining optimal health and social outcomes.

IMPORTANCE: Community-based surveys find that many otherwise healthy individuals report histories of hallucinations and delusions. To date, most studies have focused on the overall lifetime prevalence of any of these psychotic experiences (PEs), which might mask important features related to the types and frequencies of PEs. OBJECTIVE: To explore detailed epidemiologic information about PEs in a large multinational sample./nDESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: We obtained data from the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys, a coordinated set of community epidemiologic surveys of the prevalence and correlates of mental disorders in representative household samples from 18 countries throughout the world, from 2001 through 2009. Respondents included 31,261 adults (18 years and older) who were asked about lifetime and 12-month prevalence and frequency of 6 types of PEs (2 hallucinatory experiences and 4 delusional experiences). We analyzed the data from March 2014 through January 2015. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Prevalence, frequency, and correlates of PEs. RESULTS: Mean lifetime prevalence (SE) of ever having a PE was 5.8% (0.2%), with hallucinatory experiences (5.2% [0.2%]) much more common than delusional experiences (1.3% [0.1%]). More than two-thirds (72.0%) of respondents with lifetime PEs reported experiencing only 1 type. Psychotic experiences were typically infrequent, with 32.2% of respondents with lifetime PEs reporting only 1 occurrence and 31.8% reporting only 2 to 5 occurrences. We found a significant relationship between having more than 1 type of PE and having more frequent PE episodes (Cochran-Armitage z = -10.0; P

This study describes the public health burden of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in relation to the full range of traumatic events to identify the conditional risk of PTSD from each traumatic event experienced in the Mexican population and other risk factors. The representative sample comprised a subsample (N = 2,362) of the urban participants of the Mexican National Comorbidity Survey (2001-2002). We used the World Health Organization's Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) to assess exposure to trauma and the presence of PTSD according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, ) in each respondents' self-reported worst traumatic event, as well as a randomly selected lifetime trauma. The results showed that traumatic events were extremely common in Mexico (68.8%). The estimate of lifetime PTSD in the whole population was 1.5%; among only those with a traumatic event it was 2.1%. The 12-month prevalence of PTSD in the whole population was 0.6%; among only those with a traumatic event it was 0.8%. Violence-related events were responsible for a large share of PTSD. Sexual violence, in particular, was one of the greatest risks for developing PTSD. These findings support the idea that trauma in Mexico should be considered a public health concern.

ObjectiveThis study aimed to study the comorbidity of common mental disorders (CMDs) and cancer, and the mental health treatment gap among community residents with active cancer, cancer survivors and cancer-free respondents in 13 high-income and 11 low-middle-income countries. MethodsData were derived from the World Mental Health Surveys (N=66,387; n=357 active cancer, n=1373 cancer survivors, n=64,657 cancer-free respondents). The World Health Organization/Composite International Diagnostic Interview was used in all surveys to estimate CMDs prevalence rates. Respondents were also asked about mental health service utilization in the preceding 12months. Cancer status was ascertained by self-report of physician's diagnosis. ResultsTwelve-month prevalence rates of CMDs were higher among active cancer (18.4%, SE=2.1) than cancer-free respondents (13.3%, SE=0.2) adjusted for sociodemographic confounders and other lifetime chronic conditions (adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=1.44, 95% CI 1.05-1.97). CMD rates among cancer survivors (14.6%, SE=0.9) compared with cancer-free respondents did not differ significantly (AOR=0.95, 95% CI 0.82-1.11). Similar patterns characterized high-income and low-middle-income countries. Of respondents with active cancer who had CMD in the preceding 12months, 59% sought services for mental health problems (SE=5.3). The pattern of service utilization among people with CMDs by cancer status (highest among persons with active cancer, lower among survivors and lowest among cancer-free respondents) was similar in high-income (64.0%, SE=6.0; 41.2%, SE=3.0; 35.6%, SE=0.6) and low-middle-income countries (46.4%, SE=11.0; 22.5%, SE=9.1; 17.4%, SE=0.7). ConclusionsCommunity respondents with active cancer have higher CMD rates and high treatment gap. Comprehensive cancer care should consider both factors. Copyright (c) 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Background: Major depression is one of the leading causes of disability worldwide, yet epidemiologic data are not available for many countries, particularly low- to middle-income countries. In this paper, we present data on the prevalence, impairment and demographic correlates of depression from 18 high and low- to middle-income countries in the World Mental Health Survey Initiative. Methods: Major depressive episodes (MDE) as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DMS-IV) were evaluated in face-to-face interviews using the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Data from 18 countries were analyzed in this report (n = 89,037). All countries surveyed representative, population-based samples of adults. Results: The average lifetime and 12-month prevalence estimates of DSM-IV MDE were 14.6% and 5.5% in the ten high-income and 11.1% and 5.9% in the eight low- to middle-income countries. The average age of onset ascertained retrospectively was 25.7 in the high-income and 24.0 in low- to middle-income countries. Functional impairment was associated with recency of MDE. The female: male ratio was about 2:1. In high-income countries, younger age was associated with higher 12-month prevalence; by contrast, in several low- to middle-income countries, older age was associated with greater likelihood of MDE. The strongest demographic correlate in high-income countries was being separated from a partner, and in low- to middle-income countries, was being divorced or widowed. Conclusions: MDE is a significant public-health concern across all regions of the world and is strongly linked to social conditions. Future research is needed to investigate the combination of demographic risk factors that are most strongly associated with MDE in the specific countries included in the WMH. The Brazil Megacity Mental Health Survey is supported by the State of Brazil Research Foundation (FAPESP) Thematic Project Grant 03/00204-3. The Chinese World Mental Health Survey Initiative is supported by the Pfizer Foundation. The Colombian National Study of Mental Health (NSMH) is supported by the Ministry of Social Protection. The ESEMeD project is funded by the European Commission (Contracts QLG5-1999-01042; SANCO 2004123), the Piedmont Region (Italy), Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain (FIS 00/0028), Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Spain (SAF 2000-158-CE), Departament de Salut, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CIBER CB06/02/0046, RETICS RD06/0011 REM-TAP) and other local agencies, and by an unrestricted educational grant from GlaxoSmithKline. The Epidemiological Study on Mental Disorders in India was funded jointly by Government of India and WHO. The Israel National Health Survey is funded by the Ministry of Health with support from the Israel National Institute for Health Policy and Health Services Research and the National Insurance Institute of Israel. The World Mental Health Japan (WMHJ) Survey is supported by the Grant for Research on Psychiatric and Neurological Diseases and Mental Health (H13-Shogai-023, H14-Tokubetsu-026, H16-Kokoro-013) from the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The Lebanese National Mental Health Survey (LEBANON) is supported by the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health, the WHO (Lebanon), Fogarty International, anonymous private donations to IDRAAC, Lebanon, and unrestricted grants from Janssen Cilag, Eli Lilly, GlaxoSmithKline, Roche and Novartis. The Mexican National Comorbidity Survey (M-NCS) is supported by The National Institute of Psychiatry Ramon de la Fuente (INPRFMDIES 4280) and by the National Council on Science and Technology (CONACyT-G30544-H), with supplemental support from the PanAmerican Health Organization (PAHO). Te Rau Hinengaro: The New Zealand Mental Health Survey (NZMHS) is supported by the New Zealand Ministry of Health, Alcohol Advisory Council and the Health Research Council. The South Africa Stress and Health Study (SASH) is supported by the USA National Institute of Mental Health (R01-MH059575) and National Institute of Drug Abuse with supplemental funding from the South African Department of Health and the University of Michigan. The Ukraine Comorbid Mental Disorders during Periods of Social Disruption (CMDPSD) study is funded by the USA National Institute of Mental Health (RO1-MH61905). The USA National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; U01-MH60220) with supplemental support from the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA), the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF; Grant 044708), and the John W. Alden Trusts

Early-onset cannabis use is widespread in many countries and might cause later onset of depression. Sound epidemiologic data across countries are missing. The authors estimated the suspected causal association that links early-onset (age = 17 years) risk of a depression spell, using data on 85,088 subjects from 17 countries participating in the population-based World Health Organization World Mental Health Survey Initiative (2001-2005). In all surveys, multistage household probability samples were evaluated with a fully structured diagnostic interview for assessment of psychiatric conditions. The association between early-onset cannabis use and later risk of a depression spell was studied using conditional logistic regression with local area matching of cases and controls, controlling for sex, age, tobacco use, and other mental health problems. The overall association was modest (controlled for sex and age, risk ratio = 1.5, 95% confidence interval: 1.4, 1.7), was statistically robust in 5 countries, and showed no sex difference. The association did not change appreciably with statistical adjustment for mental health problems, except for childhood conduct problems, which reduced the association to nonsignificance. This study did not allow differentiation of levels of cannabis use; this issue deserves consideration in future research.

OBJECTIVE: To contribute new multinational findings on basic descriptive features of smoking and cessation, based upon standardised community surveys of adults residing in seven low-income and middle-income countries and 10 higher-income countries from all regions of the world. METHODS: Data were collected using standardised interviews and community probability sample survey methods conducted as part of the WHO World Mental Health Surveys Initiative. Demographic and socioeconomic correlates of smoking are studied using cross-tabulation and logistic regression approaches. Within-country sample weights were applied with variance estimation appropriate for complex sample survey designs. RESULTS: Estimated prevalence of smoking experience (history of ever smoking) and current smoking varied across the countries under study. In all but four countries, one out of every four adults currently smoked. In higher-income countries, estimated proportions of former smokers (those who had quit) were roughly double the corresponding estimates for most low-income and middle-income countries. Characteristics of smokers varied within individual countries, and in relation to the World Bank's low-medium-high gradient of economic development. In stark contrast to a sturdy male-female difference in the uptake of smoking seen in each country, there is no consistent sex-associated pattern in the odds of remaining a smoker (versus quitting). CONCLUSION: The World Mental Health Surveys estimates complement existing global tobacco monitoring efforts. The observed global diversity of associations with smoking and smoking cessation underscore reasons for implementation of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control provisions and prompt local adaptation of prevention and control interventions. The preparation of this manuscript was funded by the US National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA016558 and K05DA015799). These activities were supported by the United States National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH070884), the John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation, the Pfizer Foundation, the US Public Health Service (R13-MH066849, R01-MH069864, and R01 DA016558), the Fogarty International Center (FIRCA R01-TW006481). The ESEMeD project is funded by the European Commission (Contracts QLG5-1999-01042; SANCO 2004123), the Piedmont Region (Italy), Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain (FIS 00/0028), Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Spain (SAF 2000-158-CE), Departament de Salut, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CIBER CB06/02/0046, RETICS RD06/0011 REM-TAP). The World Mental Health Japan (WMHJ) Survey is supported by the Grant for Research on Psychiatric and Neurological Diseases and Mental Health (H13-SHOGAI-023, H14-TOKUBETSU-026, H16-KOKORO-013) from the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The Mexican National Comorbidity Survey (MNCS) is supported by The National Institute of Psychiatry Ramon de la Fuente (INPRFMDIES 4280) and by the National Council on Science and Technology (CONACyT-G30544- H). The South Africa Stress and Health Study (SASH) is supported by the US National Institute of Mental Health (R01- MH059575). The Ukraine Comorbid Mental Disorders during Periods of Social Disruption (CMDPSD) study is funded by the US National Institute of Mental Health (RO1-MH61905). The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; U01-MH60220) The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; U01-MH60220) with supplemental support from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF; Grant 044708)

To summarize the epidemiology of completed suicide and suicidal behavior in Mexico.National data registries on mortality from the year 1970 to 2007 and cross-sectional surveys were used to analyze suicide mortality and suicidal behavior.The suicide rate grew 275% from 1970 to 2007. Suicide has been increasing among Mexicans 15-29 years old since 1970. In adults aged 18-29 years the lifetime prevalence of ideation was 9.7%, and attempt 3.8%. About 6,601,210 Mexicans had suicidal thoughts, 593,600 attempted suicide and 99,731 used some sort of medical service as a direct consequence of the latter in the year prior to the survey.Suicide and suicide-related behaviors are significant public health problems and, as such, actions are urgently required to identify and treat persons with suicidal thoughts, assess suicidal risk in patients with psychiatric disorders and implement population interventions.

Epidemiological surveys have consistently documented significantly higher rates of anxiety and mood disorders among women than men1, 2 and significantly higher rates of externalizing and substance use disorders among men than women.3–5 Although a number of biological, psychosocial, and biopsychosocial hypotheses have been proposed to account for these patterns,6–8 evidence that gender differences in depression9, 10 and substance use11–13 have narrowed in a number of countries has led to a special interest in the “gender roles” hypothesis. The latter asserts that gender differences in the prevalence of mental disorders are due to differences in the typical stressors, coping resources, and opportunity structures for expressing psychological distress made available differentially to women and men in different countries at different points in history.14, 15 Consistent with this hypothesis, evidence of decreasing gender differences in depression and substance use has been found largely in countries where the roles of women have improved in terms of opportunities for employment, access to birth control, and other indicators of increasing gender role equality, while trend studies in countries where gender roles have been more static11, 16 or over periods of historical time when gender role changes have been small17 have failed to document a reduction in gender differences in depression or substance use. Most research aimed at investigating the gender roles hypothesis has focused on individual-level variation in roles in a single country at a single point in time.18–20 This approach is limited in three ways. First, selection bias into roles due to pre-existing mental illness (e.g., women with agoraphobia having a higher probability than other women of becoming homemakers rather than seeking employment outside the home) confounds attempts to evaluate the causal effects of gender roles. Second, gender differences are largely confined to differences in lifetime risk, with much less evidence for gender differences in recent prevalence among lifetime cases.21 This means that investigation of the determinants of gender difference should focus on lifetime first onset rather than on the recent prevalence that has been the focus of most studies. Third, as the gender roles hypothesis is a hypothesis about the effects of social context, a rigorous test of the hypothesis requires an analysis of societal-level time-space variation rather than analysis of the individual-level variation that has been the focus of most studies. A small number of cross-national comparative studies have examined spatial variation in gender differences in depression22 and alcohol abuse13 at a point in time or, more rarely, at two points in time.11 Although these studies raised the possibility that gender roles might be associated with variation in the magnitude of gender differences in these outcomes, they were unable to test this hypothesis due to the small number of cross-sectional country-level observations included in the analyses. The current report provides a more direct test of the gender roles hypothesis by analyzing community epidemiological data collected from respondents surveyed in 15 countries as part of the World Health Organization (WHO) World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative.21 Previous cross-national comparisons of gender differences in mental illness focused on cross-sectional differences. We, in comparison, use retrospective reports obtained in the WMH surveys about lifetime occurrence and age-of-onset of mental disorders in different birth cohorts to study time-space variation in lifetime risk. Specifically, we examine both variation across cohorts within a single country (i.e., temporal variation) and variation across countries within a single cohort (i.e., special variation) in lifetime risk of mental disorders as a function of time-space variation in the traditionality of gender roles. Lifetime risk is the focus rather than recent prevalence even though accuracy of reporting is doubtlessly better for recent episodes than lifetime occurrence in order to address the fact that gender differences in lifetime risk are much more robust than gender differences in current prevalence among lifetime cases

To assess the association between body mass index (BMI) and the prevalence of psychiatric disorders among Mexico City adolescents.Household survey of 3005 adolescents aged 12 to 17 residing in Mexico City in 2005 (response rate = 71%). Face to face interviews were carried out in the homes of participants with informed consent from a parent and/or legal guardian and the assent of the adolescent was obtained. Logistic regression analyses were performed.We only found an association between extremely low BMI and impulse control disorders. Elevated BMI was associated with impulse control disorders only among females. Specific impulse control disorders associated with low BMI included intermittent explosive disorder and conduct disorder. Only intermittent explosive disorder was associated with elevated BMI.Among Mexican adolescents, those with extremely high or extremely low BMI were more likely to have impulse control disorders than were adolescents with normal BMI.

Background Alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drug use cause considerable morbidity and mortality, but good cross-national epidemiological data are limited. This paper describes such data from the first 17 countries participating in the World Health Organization's (WHO's) World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative. Methods and Findings Household surveys with a combined sample size of 85,052 were carried out in the Americas (Colombia, Mexico, United States), Europe (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Ukraine), Middle East and Africa (Israel, Lebanon, Nigeria, South Africa), Asia (Japan, People's Republic of China), and Oceania (New Zealand). The WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) was used to assess the prevalence and correlates of a wide variety of mental and substance disorders. This paper focuses on lifetime use and age of initiation of tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine. Alcohol had been used by most in the Americas, Europe, Japan, and New Zealand, with smaller proportions in the Middle East, Africa, and China. Cannabis use in the US and New Zealand (both 42%) was far higher than in any other country. The US was also an outlier in cocaine use (16%). Males were more likely than females to have used drugs; and a sex–cohort interaction was observed, whereby not only were younger cohorts more likely to use all drugs, but the male–female gap was closing in more recent cohorts. The period of risk for drug initiation also appears to be lengthening longer into adulthood among more recent cohorts. Associations with sociodemographic variables were consistent across countries, as were the curves of incidence of lifetime use. Conclusions Globally, drug use is not distributed evenly and is not simply related to drug policy, since countries with stringent user-level illegal drug policies did not have lower levels of use than countries with liberal ones. Sex differences were consistently documented, but are decreasing in more recent cohorts, who also have higher levels of illegal drug use and extensions in the period of risk for initiation., Louisa Degenhardt and colleagues report an international survey of 17 countries that finds clear differences in drug use across different regions of the world., Editors' Summary Background. Understanding how much disability and death a particular disease causes (known as the “burden of disease”) is important. Knowing the burden of a disease in a country contributes to the development of healthier nations by directing strategies and policies against the disease. Researchers' understanding of the burden of diseases across different countries was piecemeal until the 1990 launch of a special World Health Organization (WHO) project, the Global Burden of Disease Project. In 2002, on the basis of updated information from this ongoing project, the WHO estimated that 91 million people were affected by alcohol use disorders and 15 million by drug use disorders. Why Was This Study Done? It is widely accepted that alcohol, tobacco, and illegal drug use are linked with a considerable amount of illness, disability, and death. However, there are few high-quality data quantifying the amount across different countries, especially in less-developed countries. The researchers therefore set out to collect basic patterns of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and cocaine use in different countries. They documented lifetime use of these substances in each county, focusing on young adults. They also wanted to examine the age of onset of use and whether the type of drugs used was affected by one's social and economic status. What Did the Researchers Do and Find? Data on drug use were available from 54,069 survey participants in 17 countries. The 17 countries were determined by the availability of collaborators and on funding for the survey. Trained lay interviewers carried out face-to-face interviews (except in France where the interviews were done over the telephone) using a standardized, structured diagnostic interview for psychiatric conditions. Participants were asked if they had ever used (a) alcohol, (b) tobacco (cigarettes, cigars or pipes), (c) cannabis (marijuana, hashish), or (d) cocaine. If they had used any of these drugs, they were asked about the age they started using each type of drug. The age of first tobacco smoking was not assessed in New Zealand, Japan, France, Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands, Italy, or Spain. The interviewers also recorded the participants' sex, age, years of education, marital status, employment, and household income. The researchers found that in the Americas, Europe, Japan, and New Zealand, alcohol had been used by the vast majority of survey participants, compared to smaller proportions in the Middle East, Africa, and China. The global distribution of drug use is unevenly distributed with the US having the highest levels of both legal and illegal drug use among all countries surveyed. There are differences in both legal and illegal drug use among different socioeconomic groups. For example, males were more likely than females to have used all drug types; younger adults were more likely than older adults to have used all drugs examined; and higher income was related to drug use of all kinds. Marital status was found to be linked only to illegal drug use—the use of cocaine and cannabis is more likely in people who have never been married or were previously married. Drug use does not appear to be related to drug policy, as countries with more stringent policies (e.g., the US) did not have lower levels of illegal drug use than countries with more liberal policies (e.g., The Netherlands). What Do These Findings Mean? These findings present comprehensive and useful data on the patterns of drug use from national samples representing all regions of the world. The data will add to the understanding of the global burden of disease and should be useful to government and health organizations in developing policies to combat these problems. The study does have its limitations—for example, it surveyed only 17 of the world's countries, within these countries there were different rates of participation, and it is unclear whether people accurately report their drug use when interviewed. Nevertheless, the study did find clear differences in drug use across different regions of the world, with the US having among the highest levels of legal and illegal drug use of all the countries surveyed. Additional Information. Please access these Web sites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050141. Facts and figures on alcohol are available from the World Health Organization, including information about the burden of disease worldwide as a result of alcohol Information on the management of substance abuse is available from WHO Information on the Global Burden of Disease Project is also available from WHO Researchers from the University of New South Wales, Australia and the University of Queensland co-chair, sponsors the Global Burden of Disease Mental Disorders and Illicit Drug Use Expert Group, which examines illicit drug use and disorders The UN World Drug Report is available from the UN Office on Drugs and Crime The University of New South Wales also runs the Secretariat for the Reference Group to the United Nations on HIV and Injecting Drug Use

To validate the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in schizophrenic patients.The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI v. 1) and the AUDIT were administered to 80 subjects with schizophrenia, of both sexes, more than 16 years of age, from the outpatient services at the National Institute of Psychiatry in Mexico City.Of the 80 schizophrenic patients, 57 were men and 23 women, with a mean age of 30.5 years and 34.3 years, respectively; the age at schizophrenia onset was 22 years for men, and 26 years for women; 35 subjects (43.7%) were consumers of alcohol at the time of the study. The AUDIT scale showed high internal consistency with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.812; for this population, the cutoff point for the full AUDIT scale was 4 points or more; cutoff points for the AUDIT 'rapid test' and the 'psychosocial issues and probable alcohol dependence' were based on benchmarking against the CIDI (DSM-IIIR and ICD-10).The AUDIT validation showed it to be a useful and sensitive screening tool for identifying schizophrenic patients at risk for alcohol abuse and dependence; therefore, it is recommended for use in clinical and epidemiological studies in Latin America.

To report the rate of exposure to different violent events, their demographic correlates, the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and the impact on quality of life.The National Survey of Psychiatric Epidemiology is representative of the Mexican urban population aged 18 to 65. The survey was undertaken in 2001 and 2002 using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI- 15) computerized version. The statistical analyses take into account the multistage, stratified, and weighted sample design. Kaplan-Meier and logistic regressions were performed.Sixty-eight percent of the population has been exposed to at least one stressful life event. Exposure varies by sex (rape, harassment, and sexual abuse are more frequent in women; accidents and being a victim of burglary among men) and by age (more frequent in children, adolescents, young adult women, and the elderly). By sex, 2.3% of women and 0.49% of men present PTSD. Rape, harassment, kidnapping, and sexual abuse are the events most associated with PTSD.The results suggest the need to increase treatment coverage to attend the consequences of violence, taking into consideration the important gender and age variations.

This paper reports a study of drug use among non-students in three countries: Mexico, Canada and India. In all three countries core items from a World Health Organization questionnaire were used. The results were generally consistent with the expectation that non-students would show greater use than students. The strongest relationship was found for cannabis (all three countries) and amphetamines (Canada and Mexico). The results indicate the need for special preventive programmes for non-students in both developing and developed countries.

Objectives. We tested whether positive selection on childhood predictors of adult mental and physical health contributed to health advantages of Mexican-born immigrants to the United States relative to U.S.-born Mexican Americans. Methods. We combined data from surveys conducted during 2000–2003 in Mexico and the U.S. with the same structured interview. We examined retrospective reports of childhood (i.e., Results. Distinguishing between family and individual selection revealed evidence of positive health selection that is obscured in the overall selection model. In particular, respondents in families with migrants were more likely to have ≥12 years of education (odds ratio [OR] = 1.60) and be in the tallest height quartile (OR=1.72) than respondents in families without migrants. At both the family and individual levels, migrants are disadvantaged on mental health profiles, including a higher prevalence of conduct problems, phobic fears, and early substance use. Conclusions. Positive health selection may contribute to physical health advantages among Mexican immigrants in the U.S. relative to their U.S.-born descendants. Mental health advantages likely reflect a lower prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Mexico, rather than protective factors that distinguish migrants.