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Background: Autoimmune mechanisms are postulated to play a role in the development and progression of Wegener's granulomatosis (WG), a form of systemic, idiopathic necrotizing vasculitis,Objective: We investigated the relation between lymphocyte activation and disease activity in patients with WG, Methods: B- and T-lymphocyte activation was studied by cytometric assessment of the expression of the activation markers CD38 on B cells and CD25 and HLA-DR on CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell subsets, respectively. Activation at the cellular level was related to serum levels of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies and soluble IL-2 receptor, which can be regarded as soluble activation markers of B and T cells.Results: Percentages of CD38(bright) activated B cells were higher in patients with active WG than in patients experiencing disease remission (P Conclusion: In WG, B-cell activation is related to active disease, whereas T-cell activation persists during remission of the disease, which points to an intrinsic disordered immune system in this disease.

SUMMARY In a previous study it was shown that La/SSB contains four linear epitopes, p147–154, p291–302, p301–318 and p349–364. The aim of the present study was to investigate the value of the synthetic epitope analogues of the La/SSB autoantigen for the detection of antibodies to La/SSB, in comparison with recombinant La and fragments of this protein. A total of 122 sera with anti-La/SSB activity, from patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) or systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), were tested in various peptide-based assays. In addition, 62 sera from pSS or SLE patients with other autoantibody specificities and 95 sera from healthy individuals were used as controls. The autoantibody specificity was identified by counter immunoelectrophoresis and immunoblot. The peptide-based ELISA assays presented sensitivities ranging from 78% to 88.8% and specificities from 69% to 94.3%. Dot blot assays exhibited sensitivities ranging from 93.6% to 97%, but remarkably lower specificities from 56% to 88%. The most sensitive and specific peptide 349GSGKGKVQFQGKKTKF364 was synthesized and attached on a tetramer sequential oligopeptide carrier SOC4 and used for immunoassay development. Assays based on the recombinant native La protein, the La-C terminal (215 aa), and the N-terminal of La with a mutation at base pair 640 (nine adenines instead of eight) were also developed and compared with the SOC4 peptide-based assay. Of anti-La-positive sera, 88.1% were reactive with both the synthetic peptide SOC4-(349–364aa) and the recombinant La protein. Eighty-three percent of sera were reactive with the La N-terminus and 67.8% of sera were reactive with the La C-terminus. Using sera that were anti-Ro-positive but anti-La-negative, 37% were reactive with the recombinant protein, 26% with the La N-terminus, 33% with the La C-terminus and only 11% with the synthetic peptide. Our results suggest that the synthetic peptide epitopes exhibit high sensitivity and specificity for the detection of anti-La/SSB antibodies in ELISA and dot blot techniques. The peptide SOC4-(349–364aa) has the same sensitivity for the detection of anti-La/SSB antibodies as the recombinant protein.

Objective. To assess the value of measuring serum levels of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (sICAM-1), soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (sVCAM-1), and soluble E-selectin for monitoring disease activity in Wegener's granulomatosis (WG).Methods. A sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure levels of soluble adhesion molecules at the time of diagnosis in 22 consecutive patients with WG, in 12 WG patients studied serially prior to disease relapse, at the time of upper airways infection in 18 patients with inactive WG, and in 57 controls. Disease activity was assessed by disease activity score and C-reactive protein levels.Results. At diagnosis of WG, sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 levels were significantly elevated and correlated with disease activity. At the time of relapse, a significant increase in all 3 soluble adhesion molecules was found compared with levels at 6 months prior to relapse, but only sVCAM-1 levels were significantly elevated compared with those in controls. Levels of soluble adhesion molecules at the time of relapse did not differ from those measured during an upper airways infection without disease activity.Conclusion. Elevated serum levels of sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 can be found in active WG and correlate with disease activity. However, their clinical relevance for followup is limited due to lack of sensitivity and specificity for WG disease activity.

La/SSB phosphoprotein is the target antigen of autoantibodies in sera of patients with Sjogren'syndrome (SS) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Among other structural and junction motifs, four phosphorylation sites are encompassed in the primary sequence of La/SSB. Two of them (Thr-362 and Ser-366) are located within GSGKGKVQFQGKKTKFASDD (346-368) and one (Thr-302) within VTWEVLEGEVEKEALKKI (301-318), which are main B-cell epitopes of La/SSB. With the aim to investigate how phosphorylation, one of the most common posttranslational protein modifications, affects the antigenic and conformational characteristics of the La/SSB epitopes, we synthesized and studied the phosphorylated epitopes La/SSB(346-368)-P, La/SSB(359-368)-P, and La/SSB(301-318)-P with respect to their nonphosphorylated counterparts. Anti-La/SSB positive sera from SS and SLE patients are better recognized by the phosphorylated epitopes compared to their nonphosphorylated counterparts. Conformational analysis by 111 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and molecular dynamics showed that the phosphorylated epitopes adopt different structural characteristics from those of the corresponding nonphosphorylated epitopes. It is concluded that phosphorylation can create neoepitopes with altered functions, compared to the nonphosphorylated epitopes, which might be seen from the immune system as "foreign." (c) 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers

The purpose of this study was to investigate the biochemical characteristics as well as the occurrence and specificity of antiphospholipid antibodies in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from a patient with both antiphospholipid antibodies syndrome (APS) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Proteins, lipids, cells and autoantibodies were determined. Immunoglobulins were purified with affinity chromatography. Autoantibody identification was assessed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and with electrophoresis, followed by immunoblotting and revelation with antihuman IgG-peroxidase conjugate. Antiphospholipid antibodies were found to be present in the BAL fluid as well as in the serum from a patient with APS. Specifically, antiphosphatidylserine and antiphosphatidic acid IgG antibodies in the BAL fluid and antiphosphatidylcholine and anticardiolipin IgG antibodies in the serum were detected at high levels. BAL fluid protein and the percentage of neutrophils were found to be increased. R quantitative as well as qualitative deficiency of surfactant phospholipids was also observed. Antibodies directed against surfactant phospholipids could cause surfactant abnormalities and an inflammatory reaction. These disorders may be one of the causes of the ARDS or a factor in the perpetuation of the inflammation. Clin Rheumatol

Objective: To investigate the presence of autoantibodies to lipids in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Design: Analysis of immunoglobulin G (IgG) in BAL fluid by electrophoresis followed by immunoblotting and characterization of immunoglobulins as antilipid autoantibodies. Setting: Intensive care unit of a university hospital and two research university laboratories. Subjects: Twenty-seven mechanically ventilated patients in total, including nine patients with ARDS and two control groups. Interventions: Patients were ventilated with a mechanical ventilation mode. Six aliquots of 20-mL sterile normal saline at 37 degreesC were infused through the working channel of the bronchoscope. Measurements: Total protein, detection of IgG by electrophoresis followed by immunoblotting, and characterization of IgG by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using different lipids as target antigens. Main Results: Antiphospholipid autoantibodies are present in BAL fluid of ARDS patients. Among the phospholipids tested, phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylserine gave the most significant activity. The IgG fraction, purified from BAL fluids by affinity chromatography, gave the same pattern of binding as that of the BAL fluid. Conclusion: The presence of anti phospholipid autoantibodies in BAL fluid suggests involvement of autoimmune mechanisms in the pathogenesis of ARDS. Crit Care Med

The sequence Pro-Pro-Gly-Meth-Arg-Pro-Pro (PPGMRPP) is the major B-cell epitope of the Sm autoantigen. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the immune response against the native forms of Sm and U1RNP and immune mediated tissue injury after immunization with the sequence PPGMRPP anchored in five copies to a new type helicoid sequential oligopeptide carrier (SQC) formed by the repetitive Lys-Aib-Gly moiety, [(PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5]. Rabbits (n = 3) were immunized with 0.5 mg of (PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5 in complete Freud's adjuvant and boosted at days 26, 53, 99; control rabbits were immunized with the PPGMRPP alone (n = 3), phosphate buffered saline (PBS) (n = 1), SOC, alone (n = 1), a peptide at aminoacid (aa) position 158-177 of myelin basic protein (MBP aa 158-147) (n = 1) and three La/SSB autoantigen B-cell epitopes (n = 3). Antibodies to (PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5 were determined by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); precipitating anti-Sm and anti-U1RNP antibodies were detected by RNA precipitation and western blot on HeLa total cellular and nuclear extract and 12s sucrose gradient fraction of rat Liver extracts. High titres of anti-(PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5 antibodies not recognizing the native forms of Sm or U1RNP antigens were detected in the (PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5 immunized but not in the control animals. The sera of two (PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5 immunized but not of the control rabbits recognized a 67 kDa protein in HeLa nuclear extract, distinct from the 70 kDa U1RNP antigen. Diffuse and segmental increase of mesangeal matrix and cells, crescent formation, segmental glomerular necrosis, rarely massive subendothelial deposits occluding the lumen and C3 complement component in the mesangeal area were seen in the kidneys of one (PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5 immunized, but not of the remaining animals. In conclusion, the immune response induced by (PPGMRPP)(5)SOC5 was specific for the immunizing epitope but not for the native forms of Sm and U1RNP antigens, but it was associated with immune mediated kidney injury. (C) 2000 Academic Press. J Autoimmun

SUMMARYThe aim of this study was to investigate the immunogenicity of four synthetic peptides, representing linear B cell epitopes of the human La/SSB autoantigen: 145–164 aa (p1), 289–308 aa (p2), 301–318 aa (p3) and 349–364 aa (p4), in rabbits. New Zealand White rabbits were immunized with each of the above peptides attached in four copies on tetrameric sequential oligopeptide carriers (SOC) in duplicate. Control immunizations were also performed (one rabbit each, immunized with Freud's complete adjuvant alone or with the SOC carrier alone). Animals were bled at regular intervals and sera were analysed for anti-La/SSB activity by ELISA assays using as antigen the various synthetic peptides, as well as the whole La/SSB protein. Four months after the last immunization, the animals were killed and peripheral blood mononuclear and spleen cells were co-cultured with either the peptides, the SOC carrier, or 27 peptides, covering the entire length of the human La/SSB molecule (23 amino acids long, overlapping by eight residues to each other). A specific, IgG, anti-peptide antibody response was detected, initially directed against the priming peptide, and subsequently expanded to the other La/SSB synthetic peptides. The antibody titres remained high, even 4 months after the last immunization. Sera from rabbits immunized with either p2 or p3 reacted also with the whole La/SSB protein, as was demonstrated by ELISA and immunoblot assays. No reactivities against either Ro60 or Ro52 autoantigen were found. Rabbit spleen cell reacted not only with the epitope used for the immunization but also with other La/SSB peptides. Immunization of rabbits with the major human La/SSB B cell antigenic determinants, linked to SOC carrier, induces strong and sustained antibody and T cell responses against multiple epitopes of the human La/SSB protein. Thus, La/SSB B cell linear epitopes are probably capable also of functioning as T cell epitopes, in this experimental animal.

SUMMARY Vascular injury in vasculitis may be due to activation of circulating neutrophils resulting in their increased adhesiveness to locally activated endothelium (Shwartzman phenomenon). Previously, we demonstrated up-regulation of endothelial intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) in biopsies from patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis. In the present study, we investigated the expression of adhesion molecules (CD11b, ICAM-1, VLA-4, l-selectin) and activation markers (CD66b, CD64, CD63) on circulating neutrophils from patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis in comparison with their expression on cells from healthy volunteers and patients with sepsis. We related these findings to parameters of disease activity. Surface marker expression was determined by using a non-activating whole blood flow cytometric assay. The expression of activation markers, but not the expression of adhesion molecules, was increased on neutrophils from patients with active vasculitis. The expression of CD63 and CD66b on neutrophils correlated with disease activity as determined by the Birmingham Vasculitis Activity Score (BVAS). In contrast to patients with active vasculitis, patients with sepsis showed up-regulation of all markers, including adhesion molecules, suggesting that circulating neutrophils are fully activated in sepsis. We conclude that in ANCA-associated vasculitis, circulating neutrophils are not fully activated, since they do not express increased levels of adhesion molecules as sepsis or in the Shwartzman reaction. These findings are compatible with the concept that in vivo vascular damage in ANCA-associated vasculitides does not occur due to a Shwarzman-like reaction but only after ANCA-induced neutrophil activation at the endothelial cell surface.

PURPOSE: The clinical significance of antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies (ANCA) in primary sclerosing cholangitis has not been established. We investigated whether analysis of the antigenic specificities of ANCA is useful for delineating clinical subsets of the disease. METHODS: Sixty-nine patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis were studied. The presence of ANCA was analyzed by indirect immunofluorescence. Antibodies directed against specific antigens-proteinase 3, myeloperoxidase, elastase, bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein, cathepsin G, and lactoferrin-were identified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: ANCA were detected by indirect immunofluorescence in 46 (67%) patients. In antigen-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, 37 (55%) of the 69 patients had antibodies to one or more antigens: 32 (46%) had antibodies to bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein, 16 (23%) had antibodies to cathepsin G, and 15 (22%) had antibodies to lactoferrin. Only 3 patients had antibodies to proteinase 3. Antibodies to myeloperoxidase or elastase were not detected. Twenty (29%) patients had antibodies to different antigens simultaneously. ANCA as detected by indirect immunofluorescence were not significantly associated with the presence of cirrhosis nor with the coexistence of inflammatory bowel disease. However, antibodies to bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein and cathepsin G were both associated with the presence of cirrhosis, and antibodies to lactoferrin were more frequently detected in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis in conjunction with ulcerative colitis than in those without inflammatory bowel disease. CONCLUSION: Defined specificities of ANCA in primary sclerosing cholangitis may be related to particular clinical features of the disease. (C) 1998 by Excerpta Medica, Inc.

SUMMARY The B cell epitope mapping of La/SSB was performed using 20 mer synthetic peptides overlapping by eight amino acids covering the whole sequence of the protein. IgG, purified from sera of five patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and four sera from patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) were tested against the overlapping synthetic peptides. Peptides highly reactive with purified IgG were those spanning the regions 145–164, 289–308, 301–320 and 349–368 of the La protein. Determination of the minimum required length of the antigenic determinants disclosed the following epitopes:147HKAFKGSI154, 291NGNLQLRNKEVT302, 301VTWEVLEGEVEKEALKKI318 and 349GSGKGKVQFQGKKTKF364. Predicted features and molecular similarities of the defined epitopes were investigated using protein databases. The La epitope 147HKAFKGSI154 presented 83.3% similarity with the 139HKGFKGVD146 region of human myelin basic protein (MBP) and 72% similarity with the fragment YKNFKGTI of human DNA topoisomerase II. Peptides corresponding to these sequences cross-reacted with anti-La/SSB antibodies. Sixty-three sera with anti-La/SSB antibodies from patients with pSS or SLE, 35 sera without anti-La/SSB antibodies from patients with SS or SLE and 41 sera from age/sex-matched healthy blood donors were tested against biotinylated synthetic epitope analogues in order to determine their sensitivity and specificity for the detection of anti-La/SSB antibodies. Anti-La/SSB were detected with various frequencies ranging from 20% to epitope 147HKAFKGSI154 to 100% to epitope 349GSGKGKVQGKKTKF364. The overall sensitivity and specificity using all assays with the synthetic peptides were found to be 93.6% and 85.6%, respectively. In conclusion, antibodies to La/SSB constitute a heterogeneous population, directed against different linear B cell epitopes of the molecule. The epitope 147HKAFKGSI154 presents molecular similarity with fragments of two other autoantigens, i.e. human MBP and DNA topoisomerase II. Finally, synthetic epitope analogues exhibit high sensitivity and specificity for the detection of anti-La/SSB antibodies.

Anti-Sm antibodies are usually considered highly specific for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), while anti-U1 RNP antibodies are found in high titers in patients with mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD). The sequence P-1-P-G-M-R-P-P-7, present in three copies in the Sm (U1-U6 RNA-protein complex) autoantigen, is an important functional domain of the antigenic determinants. The immunoreactivity of this proline-rich repetitive epitope was investigated by testing sera with various autoantibody specificities for reactivity against this epitope, as well as its conformational properties by means of 1D and 2D (1)HNMR spectroscopy. It was found that the P-P-G-M-R-P-P epitope is recognized mainly by anti-U1RNP and/or anti-Sm positive sera, but also by anti-Ro(SSA) (hY1RNA-protein complex) and anti-La(SSB) (hY1RNA-protein complex) positive sera, although these sera are negative for anti-U1RNP and anti-Sm. Conformational analysis of the proline-rich epitope in DMSO-d(6) solution obtained from lyophilized aqueous solution at pH 5 showed the presence of at least three conformers. The main conformer A (62%) is stabilized by an ionic interaction between the guanidinium and the C-terminal carboxylate groups, and the Pro(6)-Pro(7) peptide bond adopts the cis form. A type II beta-turn is also present in the N-terminal sequence (Pro(1)-Pro-Gly-Met(4)-) of this conformer. Conformer B (21%) is also stabilized by a similar ionic interaction, as in conformer A, while the NMR data indicate the absence of a folded structure in the N-terminal tetrapeptide of this conformer. Conformer C (17%) adopts a completely extended structure. The multiple conformers of the P-P-G-M-R-P-P may offer some explanation for the reactivity of sera with various autoantibody specificities against this epitope. (C) Munksgaard 1996. International Journal of Peptide and Protein Research

Anti-Ro60KD autoantibodies are commonly found in sera from patients with primary Sjogren's syndrome (SS) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). In order to identify the epitopes of this autoantigen, 22-mer, synthetic peptides overlapping by eight residues, and covering the entire sequence of the Ro60KD autoantigen were prepared. Three groups of sera were evaluated according to their autoantibody specificities. The first group consisted of monospecific anti Ro60KD sera from four patients with SLE and one with SS, the second one was composed of anti-Ro60KD + anti-La(SSB)-positive sera from four patients with SS and the third group included three normal sera and one anti Ro52KD serum. It was found that sera from SLE patients interact with a common antigenic site spanning the sequence TKYKQRNGWSHKDLLRSHLKP (169-190) of the Ro60KD protein. On the other hand, sera from SS patients recognise the ELYKEKALSVETEKLLKYLEAV (211-232) region of this autoantigen. Determination of the minimal required peptide length for optimal antibody recognition showed that the defined epitopes can be shortened to the NGWSHKDLLR (175-184) and KALSVETEKLLKYLEAV (216-332) sequences respectively. Inhibition experiments using the Ro60KD antigen and soluble peptides corresponding to the 175-184 and 216-232 segments further confirmed the specific antibody binding. These results, although only a small number of sera were used, indicate that the Ro60KD autoantigen, which is not characterized by disease specificity, contains two discrete epitopes specifically recognized from SLE and SS patient sera. Finally, the sequence similarity of the NGWSHKDLLR (175-184) epitope with some of the HLA haplotypes, associated with anti-lie response, deserves to be noted. Eur J Clin Invest

SUMMARY Previous studies demonstrated a possible antigenic relation between the carboxyl terminal portion of anti-Ro60kD autoantigen and a nucleocapsid protein (N) of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). In order to investigate whether anti-Ro60kD autoantibodies react with the VSV homologous region of the Ro60kD protein we synthesized, according to Merrifield's method, the EYRKKMDI octapeptide (8p) sharing a common sequence with the N protein of VSV. Sera from 61 patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases (34 systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), 21 Sjögren's syndrome (SS) and six rheumatoid arthritis (RA)) as well as 59 from normal blood donors were tested for the presence of anti-Ro60kD autoantibodies by ELISA and immunoblot (IB) and anti 8p antibodies by ELISA. Antibodies to 8p were found in 9/31 of anti-Ro60kD IB-positive sera, 5/30 of anti-Ro60kD-negative sera and 2/59 of normal control sera. The concordance between the anti-8p ELISA and the anti-Ro60kD IB was very poor (χ2= 0·71 P= 0·4) in contrast to the anti-Ro60kD ELISA and the anti-Ro IB(χ2= 27·6, P= 10-7). Subsequent affinity purification of the anti-8p antibodies from a strong positive anti-8p and anti-Ro60kD SLE serum yielded 95% depletion of the anti-8p activity and 37% reduction of the anti-Ro60kD activity. Inhibition assays with the affinity-purified anti-8p antibodies demonstrated that the octapeptide gave 94·5% inhibition of the anti-Ro60kD activity, while Ro60kD protein led to 420% inhibition of the anti-8p. Preincubation of the serum with the octapeptide produced 4% inhibition of anti-Ro60kD ELISA. These results indicate that the anti-8p antibodies account only for a minority of the anti-Ro60kD autoantibodies.

Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) is a clinical syndrome characterized by rapid deterioration of renal function occurring within days or weeks together with signs of glomerulonephritis, that is, proteinuria and hematuria with cellular casts. The syndrome is, in many cases, histopathologically manifested as fibrinoid necrosis of the capillary wall with extracapillary proliferation and crescent formation [1]. This so-called necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis (NCGN) is seen in 5 to 15% of renal biopsies in most series [1–3]. Although it is infrequent, the importance of the condition is illustrated by the fact that most cases of NCGN, if left untreated, develop renal failure within days or weeks [1]. Based on immunohistopathology NCGN can be subdivided into three distinct categories. The first one, occurring in 2 to 20% of the cases and characterized by linear staining of the glomerular capillary wall for immunoglobulin and complement, has classically been described as anti-glomerular basement membrane (GBM) disease. It is associated with autoantibodies to structural antigens of the GBM, in particular to the first globular noncollagen domain of collagen type IV [4]. The antibodies are considered of pathogenetic significance. The second category, comprising 15 to 50% of cases, is characterized by granular deposits of immunoglobulin and complement suggesting that immune complexes are pathogenetically involved. This type occurs in conjunction with systemic autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus, in cases of post-infectious glomerulonephritis, IgA nephropathy or Henoch-Schonlein purpura, or as an idiopathic variety. The third group of NCGN, occurring in 40 to 80%, demonstrates only a few or no immune deposits and is designated as pauci-immune NCGN [1–3, 5, 6]. Pauci-immune NCGN occurs as part of Wegener's granulomatosis (WG) or related conditions, or without systemic vasculitis (idiopathic NCGN). The pathophysiology of this pauci-immune type of NCGN has not been elucidated. Within the last decade, however, it has been recognized that the condition is associated with autoantibodies to cytoplasmic components of neutrophils (anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies or ANCA). ANCA were first described in 1982 by Davies et al in a few patients with segmental necrotizing glomerulonephritis [7]. Only in 1985 did it become apparent that ANCA are a sensitive and specific marker for Wegener's granulomatosis (WG) [8]. Later on, ANCA were described in patients with microscopic polyarteritis [9]. Falk and Jennette, in 1988, showed that ANCA are also associated with the idiopathic form of pauci-immune NCGN [10]. These data have now been confirmed by many groups and support the view that ANCA-associated glomerulonephritis and vasculitis is, indeed, a distinct disease category. A number of studies, in addition, have suggested that ANCA are involved in the pathophysiology of the aforementioned disorders. As ANCA, however, have recently also been detected in a wide range of inflammatory and infectious conditions, a critical reappraisal of the diagnostic significance of ANCA-testing seems justified. In this review we will evaluate the current state of ANCA-testing as well as elaborate on the pathophysiological role of the autoantibodies in necrotizing glomerulonephritis and vasculitis. Data presented recently at the Fifth International Workshop on ANCA, held in Cambridge, United Kingdom, will be included [11]. As such, it adds to previous reviews on ANCA that were published following the Second [12], Third [13], and Fourth [14] Workshops on ANCA.

Androgen binding sites have been identified in circulating human mononuclear leukocytes of healthy donors of both sexes. Cells were separated from blood samples on a Ficoll gradient and incubated with different concentrations of [ 3 H]testosterone in the presence or absence of a 400-fold excess of unlabelled testosterone. Binding data were derived from Scatchard analysis. The binding sites fulfil the required criteria for specific steroid binding sites however differ somewhat from the classic androgen receptors from genital skin fibroblast: in fertile adult males ( n = 20) the binding sites showed (1) a high affinity for testosterone (1.32 ± 0.49 nM; mean ± SD), (2) a saturable capacity (184 ± 52 binding sites per cell; mean ± SD), and (3) a characteristic competitive binding profile for other steroid hormones (relative binding affinities: testosterone = dihydrotestosterone > 17β-estradiol > progesterone, whereas aldosterone, 17-hydroxy-progesterone and cortisol did not compete appreciably). Furthermore the number of binding sites determined using [ 3 H]dihydrotestosterone, [ 3 H]RU-1881, or [ 3 H]testosterone were comparable. This raises the possibility that androgen receptors in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes differ from those in genital skin fibroblasts. There was no apparent correlation between serum testosterone concentrations and androgen binding sites. In fertile women remarkable changes in androgen binding sites were seen in the course of the menstrual cycle, with a significant increase in the immediate preovulatory period. The presence of androgen receptors in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes provides for the first time the experimental basis for an hypothesis of direct, receptor-mediated effects of androgens on mature immunocompetent cells. The immunological implications of these results are discussed.

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs) constitute a new class of autoantibodies that seem to recognise myeloid lysosomal enzymes. The occurrence of ANCAs with specificity for human leucocyte elastase (HLE) was assessed in serum samples that were routinely submitted for ANCA determination. During a study period of more than six years anti-HLE was found in only six out of 1102 serum samples that produced a perinuclear or an atypical cytoplasmic staining pattern on ethanol fixed granulocytes. These six serum samples were from four patients with a clinical diagnosis of Wegener's granulomatosis but without a definite histological diagnosis, one patient with systemic vasculitis, and one patient with Cogan's syndrome. To further evaluate the prevalence of anti-HLE we tested 315 serum samples from patients with different forms of vasculitis and related disorders. Anti-HLE was detected in two patients only. Thus autoantibodies to HLE are rarely found in serum samples from patients with vasculitic or related disorders.

Death receptors have been recently identified as a subgroup of the TNF-receptor superfamily with a predominant function in induction of apoptosis. The receptors are characterized by an intracellular region, called the death domain, which is required for the transmission of the cytotoxic signal. Currently, five different such death receptors are known including tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-1, CD95 (Fas/APO-1), TNF-receptor-related apoptosis-mediated protein (TRAMP) and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) receptor-1 and -2. The signaling pathways by which these receptors induce apoptosis are rather similar. Ligand binding induces receptor oligomerization, followed by the recruitment of an adaptor protein to the death domain through homophilic interaction. The adaptor protein then binds a proximal caspase, thereby connecting receptor signaling to the apoptotic effector machinery. In addition, further pathways have been linked to death receptor-mediated apoptosis, such as sphingomyelinases, JNK kinases and oxidative stress. These pro-apoptotic signals are counteracted by several mechanisms which inhibit apoptosis at different levels. This review summarizes the current and rapidly expanding knowledge about the biological functions of death receptors and the mechanisms to trigger or to counteract cell death.