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The interest in low-carbon hydrogen technologies is growing fast in politics and the economy. The ramp-up of a hydrogen market is a critical phase, which requires the engagement and coordination of many heterogeneous stakeholders. A better understanding of who these stakeholders are and what relationships, chances, and risks they perceive is crucial to guide a hydrogen market ramp-up. This paper conducts a stakeholder analysis for Germany with a focus on the market ramp-up period. Interviews with 36 hydrogen experts, literature, and stakeholders from 78 real-world hydrogen research and demonstration projects are analysed with qualitative content analysis and social network analysis. In total, 49 stakeholder groups are identified and defined accordingly. The results indicate that established stakeholders' roles will significantly change in a future hydrogen market. Risks range from economic and supply chain risks to impacts on international policy. Chances are found along economic, ecological, and political dimensions. Political intervention during the market ramp-up should mostly focus on the economic gap between low-carbon hydrogen and fossil alternatives and on prioritising the allocation of scarce hydrogen supply on heterogeneous demand. Simultaneously, a long-term strategy should be envisaged to guarantee a competitive and non-discriminatory hydrogen market in the future. • Review of real-world hydrogen projects, literature, and expert interviews. • Identification of 49 stakeholder categories. • Analysis of chances, risks, and potential conflicts. • Electricity utilities are found to be a central player on the supply side. • Discussion of implications for the market ramp-up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green energy commodities are expected to be central in decarbonising the global energy system. Such green energy commodities could be hydrogen or other hydrogen-based energy commodities produced from renewable energy sources (RES) such as solar or wind energy. We quantify the production cost and potentials of hydrogen and hydrogen-based energy commodities ammonia, methane, methanol, gasoline, diesel and kerosene in 113 countries. Moreover, we evaluate total supply costs to Germany, considering both pipeline-based and maritime transport. We determine production costs by optimising the investment and operation of commodity production from dedicated RES based on country-level RES potentials and country-specific weighted average costs of capital. Analysing the geographic distribution of production and supply costs, we find that production costs dominate the supply cost composition for liquid or easily liquefiable commodities, while transport costs dominate for gaseous commodities. In the case of Germany, importing green ammonia could be more cost-efficient than domestic production from locally produced or imported hydrogen. Green ammonia could be supplied to Germany from many regions worldwide at below the cost of domestic production, with costs ranging from 624 to 874 $/t NH 3 and Norway being the cheapest supplier. Ammonia production using imported hydrogen from Spain could be cost-effective if a pan-European hydrogen pipeline grid based on repurposed natural gas pipelines exists. • Comprehensive database for global production and supply costs with projections until 2050. • Production costs are the significant cost component for liquid or easily liquefiable energy commodities. • Green hydrogen might be traded regionally via pipeline rather than shipped globally via LH 2. • Importing green ammonia is more cost-efficient than importing green hydrogen for domestic ammonia production in Germany. • Germany: Only if a low-cost European H 2 pipeline grid exists could ammonia production from imported H 2 be cost-effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a comprehensive approach for estimating the development of global production and supply costs of low-carbon hydrogen from renewable energy sources (onshore wind, offshore wind and solar photovoltaics) and natural gas (natural gas reforming with carbon capture and storage and natural gas pyrolysis) until 2050. The analysis also assesses the costs associated with the transportation of hydrogen by ship or pipeline. The combination of production and transportation costs yields a ranking of cost-optimal supply sources for individual countries. Estimation results suggest that natural gas reforming with carbon capture and storage will be the most cost-efficient low-carbon hydrogen production pathway in the medium term (2020–2030). Production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources could become competitive in the long run (2030–2050) if capital costs decrease significantly. Until 2050, minimum production costs for hydrogen from renewable energy sources could fall to $1.5/kg under central assumptions and to below $1/kg under optimistic assumptions in some regions. The cost-optimal long-term hydrogen supply depends on regional characteristics, such as renewable energy potentials and gas prices. Imports of hydrogen from renewable energy sources are cost-effective where domestic production potential is small and/or cost-intensive. Additionally, good import conditions exist for countries which are connected to prospective low-cost exporters via existing natural gas pipelines that can be retrofitted to transport hydrogen. Due to the high cost of seaborne transport, hydrogen trade will most likely develop regionally along pipeline networks. • Comprehensive assessment of future global low-carbon H2 production and supply costs. • H2 from natural gas is more cost effective than from RES the medium-term (2030). • H2 from RES is potentially cost competitive in the long-term (2050). • H2 trade will most likely be pipeline-based and thus concentrated regionally. • The optimal long-term H2 supply mix varies significantly between countries/regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]