Search

This study was partially supported by the European Commission (Qualiwater project INCO-CT-2005-015031) and by an INIA (Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Tecnologia Agraria y Alimentaria, Spain) doctoral fellowship given to V. Urdanoz. We kindly acknowledge the technical assistance of N. Claveri´a, M. Izquierdo, J. Gaudo´ and D. Naval

9 Pag., 5 Tabl., 6 Fig., Irrigated agriculture may impair negative “on-site” (i.e., soil salinization) and “off-site” (i.e., salts exported in irrigation return flows) effects. The aim of this study was to assess these effects, and the relationships between soil- and drainage-water salinity in a basin before and after the development of irrigation. Soil salinity (ECe) was estimated through electromagnetic induction (EMI) techniques (ECa) and the corresponding calibration equations, and drainage water salinity (ECdw) was measured in the outlets of 22 watersheds delineated within a 505-ha study area before (Year 2006) and after (Year 2008) irrigation development. Apparent soil EC was about 50% higher in 2008 than in 2006 due to increasing soil water contents, but estimated ECe was about 15% lower in 2008 than in 2006 due to salt leaching induced by irrigation. Drainage water EC increased by one order of magnitude from the upper (ECdw = 0.4 dS m−1) to the lower (ECdw = 4.5 dS m−1) reaches of the drainage network. The mean ECdw of the 22 watershed drainage outlets increased from pre-irrigation 2006 (2.4 dS m−1) to post-irrigation 2007 (3.1 dS m−1) and 2008 (2.7 dS m−1) years. Drainage water EC significantly depended (P < 0.001) on surface-weighted EC (ECe*) of each watershed, but the linear regressions were different in 2006 and 2008. The transformation from dryland to irrigation led to the leaching of salts and its export in the irrigation return flows. A compromise needs to be attained in the study area to achieve the beneficial “on-site” leaching of salts while minimizing the detrimental “off-site” export of salts., This study was partially supported by the European Commission (INCO-CT-2005-015031) and by an INIA (Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnologia Agraria y Alimentaria, Spain) doctoral fellowship given to V. Urdanoz.

Irrigation return flows may induce salt and nitrate pollution of receiving water bodies. The objectives of this study were to perform a salt and nitrogen mass balance at the hydrological basin level and to quantify the salt and nitrate loads exported in the drainage waters of three basins located in a 15,500 ha irrigation district of the Ebro River Basin (Spain). The main salt and nitrogen inputs and outputs were measured or estimated in these basins along the 2001 hydrological year. Groundwater inflows in the three basins and groundwater outflow in one basin were significant components of the measured mass balances. Thus, the off-site impact ascribed solely to irrigation in these basins was estimated in the soil drainage water. Salt concentrations in soil drainage were low (TDS of around 400–700 mg/l, depending on basins) due to the low TDS of irrigation water and the low presence of salts in the geologic materials, and were inversely related to the drainage fractions (DF = 37–57%). However, due to these high DF, salt loads in soil drainage were relatively high (between 3.4 and 4.7 Mg/ha), although moderate compared to other areas with more saline geological materials. Nitrate concentrations and nitrogen loads in soil drainage were highest (77 mg NO 3 − /l and 195 kg N/ha) in basin III, heavily fertilized (357 kg N/ha), with the highest percentage of corn and with shallow, low water retention flood-irrigated soils. In contrast, the lowest nitrate concentrations and nitrogen loads (21 mg NO 3 − /l and 23 kg N/ha) were found in basin II, fertilized with 203 kg N/ha and preponderant in deep, alluvial valley soils, crops with low N requirements (alfalfa and pasture), the highest non-cropped area (26% of total) and with fertigation practices in the sprinkler-irrigated fields (36% of the irrigated area). Thus, 56% of the N applied by fertilization was lost in soil drainage in basin III, as compared to only 16% in basin II. In summary, a low irrigation efficiency coupled to an inadequate management of nitrogen fertilization are responsible for the low-salt, high-nitrate concentrations in soil and surface drainage outflows from the studied basins. In consequence, higher irrigation efficiencies, optimized nitrogen fertilization and the reuse for irrigation of the low-salt, high-nitrate drainage waters are key management strategies for a better control of the off-site pollution from the studied irrigation district.

14 Pags.- 9 Figs., The return flows from irrigated agriculture may increase the salt and nitrate concentrations of the receiving water bodies, limiting their agricultural, industrial, urban and ecological uses. The objectives of this study are (i) to analyze the sources and levels of salt and nitrate concentrations in the surface waters of the irrigation district n° V of Bardenas I (CR-V), and (ii) to prescribe management practices aimed at protecting the quality of water resources. The electrical conductivity (EC) and nitrate concentration ([NO3−]) were measured in water samples collected in 28 drainage ditches of CR-V and in eight points along the Riguel River (the main drainage outlet for CR-V) in 14 dates of the 1999–2000 hydrological year. Drainage waters were moderate in salts (year-average EC=0.87 dS/m) and high in nitrates (year-average [NO3−]=55 mg/l), and both of them increased during the non-irrigation season. The lowest EC and [NO3−] in the Riguel River were measured at the entrance of CR-V and during the April–September irrigation season (season-average=0.45 dS/m and 2 mg/l, respectively), and attained the highest values at the river outlet (end of CR-V) and during the October–March non-irrigation season (season-average=1.55 dS/m and 50 mg/l, respectively). Salt loadings at the river outlet were correlated with river flows (P0.05) due to the higher nitrate variability in drainage waters. The unitary annual upper limit load emissions from CR-V were 7.2 t total dissolved salts/ha and 59 kg NO3−-N/ha. The optimization of nitrogen fertilization, the improvement of irrigation efficiency and the internal reuse for irrigation of the low EC-high NO3− drainage waters are the key management strategies for decreasing salt and nitrogen load emissions from CR-V and protecting the quality of the receiving water bodies., This work has been financed by the Plan Nacional I+D and FEDER funds through Project 2FD 1997-0547, with the invaluable collaboration of the CR-V irrigation district.

This work diagnoses the present salinity of the Riguel and Arba Rivers (Spain) and predicts its expected evolution using geochemical models applied to the modernization of the actual Bardenas I and the completion of irrigation in the Bardenas II irrigation districts. The results show a progressive increase in salinity (from 0.39 to 2.21 dS/m electrical conductivity) in the Riguel-Arba system, due to the cumulative collection of irrigation return flows and its progression towards more saline facies. The Bardenas I modernization, involving an increase in irrigation efficiency from 50 to 90%, will decrease the volume and salinity of the Riguel River by 30%. In contrast, irrigation of the new 24,000 ha Bardenas II land will increase the flow (12%) and salinity (21%) of the Arba River. Geochemical models may help in providing sensible estimates on the impact of irrigation on the salinity of the receiving water bodies.

Diagnosis of water management at the irrigation district level is required for the rational modernisation of the irrigation schemes and the subsequent increase in the efficiency of water allocation and application. Our objectives were to: (i) evaluate the global irrigation performance in the 5282 ha La Violada surface-irrigated district (Ebro River Basin, northeast Spain), and (ii) estimate the water that could potentially be conserved under two scenarios of modernisation and three increased irrigation efficiencies. The main district’s water inputs and outputs were measured (irrigation, precipitation, and outflow surface drainage) or estimated (canal releases, lateral surface runoff, municipal wastewaters, and actual evapotranspiration of crops) during the 1995–1998 hydrological years. The annual average water outputs were 23% higher than the corresponding water inputs, presumably due to canal seepage and lateral groundwater inflows from the 14 355 ha dry-land watershed. The district-level irrigation performance was poor (mean 1995–1998 seasonal irrigation consumptive use coefficient (ICUC)=48%), due to the low distribution (DE) and on-farm (ICUCf) efficiencies (i.e., mean estimates of 83% (DE) and 61% (ICUCf) for the 1995–1996 irrigation seasons). Thus, despite the high volume of applied irrigation water, the actual district ET was 16% lower than the maximum achievable ET, indicating that the water-stressed crops yielded below their maximums. Potential reductions in water allocation were estimated for three ICUC values (65, 75 and 85%) and two scenarios of modernisation (I and II). In scenario I, where the aim was to achieve maximum ET and crop yields, water allocation could be reduced from 8 to 30% of the current allocation. In scenario II, where the aim was to achieve the maximum conservation of water under the actual ET and crop yields, reductions in water allocation would be much higher (from 26 to 43% of current allocation). Thus, significant volumes of water could be conserved in the rehabilitation of this 50-year-old district by increasing the distribution efficiency and, in particular, the on-farm irrigation efficiency.

20 Pag., 3 Tabl., 6 Fig. The definitive version is available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1475-2743/, Diagnosis of soil salinity and its spatial variability is required to establish control measures in irrigated agriculture. This article shows the usefulness of electromagnetic (EM) and soil sampling techniques to map salinity. We analysed the salinity of a 1-ha plot of surface-irrigated olive plantation in Aragon, NE Spain, by measuring the electrical conductivity of the saturation extract (ECe) of soil samples taken at 22 points, and by reading the Geonics EM38 sensor at 141 points in the horizontal (EMH) and vertical (EMV) dipole positions. EMH and EMV values had asymmetrical bimodal distributions, with most readings in the non-saline range and a sharp transition to relatively high readings. Most salinity profiles were uniform (i.e. EMH=EMV), except in areas with high salinity and concurrent shallow water tables, where the profiles were inverted as shown by EMH > EMV, and by ECe being greater in shallow than in deeper layers. The regressions of ECe on EM readings predicted ECe with R2 > 84% for the 0–100 to 0–150 cm soil depths. We then produced salinity contour maps from the 141 ECe values estimated from the electromagnetic readings and the 22 measured values of ECe. Owing to the high soil sampling density, the maps were similar (i.e. mean surface-weighted ECe values between 3.9 dS m−1 and 4.2 dS m−1), although the electromagnetically estimated ECe improved the mapping of details. Whereas soil sampling is preferred for analysing the vertical distribution of soil salinity, the electromagnetic sensor is ideal for mapping the lateral variability of soil salinity., This article is a result of the project RTA01-001, funded by INIA (Ministry of Science and Technology of Spain). The second author was granted by Fundación Cándido Iturriaga - María Dañobeitia.

Appropriate estimates of salt and nitrate loads exported by irrigated agriculture are needed to ascertain the potential negative impacts on the quality of the receiving water bodies. The irrigation return flows of the La Violada irrigation district (NE Spain), collected by La Violada Gully, were monitored for 4 years (1995–1998) in order to estimate salt and nitrate loads. The existence of a daily cycle in the Gully flow during the April to September 1995 irrigation season, associated with a cycle in the electrical conductivity, made it necessary to analyse the influence of the sampling hour on the daily estimates of salt and nitrate loads. Interpolation and regression methods were evaluated using nine 2-days surveys with samples taken at all even hours. The interpolation approach proved to be reliable for daily load estimations, whereas the regression approach was unacceptable due to the poor salinity-flow and nitrate concentration-flow relationships. The sampling time was important for the determination of salt load by the interpolation method, but resulted almost irrelevant for the estimation of nitrate load. Although the biases represent a small percentage of the mean (

The analysis of irrigation and drainage management and their effects on the loading of salts is important for the control of on-site and off-site salinity effects of irrigated agriculture in semi-arid areas. We evaluated the irrigation management and performed the hydrosalinity balance in the D-XI hydrological basin of the Monegros Il system(Aragòn, Spain)by measuring or estimating the volume, salt concentration and salt mass in the water inputs(irrigation, precipitation and Canal scepage) and outputs(evapotranspiration and drainage)during the period June 1997—September 1998. This area is irrigated by solid-set sprinklers and center pivots, and corn and alfalfa account for 90% of the 470 ha irrigated land. The soils are low in salts(only 10% of the irrigated land is salt affected),but shallow (

50 Pags., 1 Tabl., 8 Figs. The definitive version is available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00221694, The measurement of the soil solution electrical conductivity (σw) is critical for a better management of irrigation water and the effective monitoring and control of soil salinity. The objective of this work is to present the design and validation of a new time domain reflectometry (TDR) probe (WECP) for accurate and non-destructive measurements of σw. The probe consists in 14 porous ceramics disks (0.5 bar bubbling pressure) arranged along the axis of a three-rod TDR probe. Using the Mualem and Friedman (1991) model, σw was estimated from the volumetric water content (θ) and the bulk electrical conductivity (σa) measured in the ceramic disk set of known pore-geometry. The τ and β factors, which describe the complex geometry of the ceramic matrix, were calculated by immersing the probe in NaCl solutions of different electrical conductivities, and in a pressure cell wetted and drained with these NaCl solutions, respectively. The reliability of the WECP was validated under laboratory and field conditions. The laboratory experiment consisted of the TDR probe inserted in a pressure cell packed with mixed sand and 2-mm sieved loam soil that was subsequently wetted and drained with different NaCl solutions at various pressure heads. The σw estimated by WECP was compared to the σw measured in the draining solutions after they stabilized in the soil porous system. The field experiment compared the σw estimated by WECP with the corresponding σw values measured in the soil solution extracted with three ceramic tension lysimeters (TLs) after successive wetting and drainage cycles. The τ and β factors calculated for the ceramic disks set were 1.957 and 4.282, respectively. High and significant correlations were found in both laboratory (R2 = 0.98; P < 0.001) and field (R2 = 0.97; P < 0.001) experiments between the σw estimated by the WECP and the corresponding σw values measured in the column-drainage or TL-extracted soil solutions, respectively. These results demonstrate that the WECP is a feasible instrument to accurately estimate soil solution salinity independently of the soil water content and the porous medium in which the TDR probe is installed., This research was supported by the Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnología of Spain (Grant AGL2010-22050-CO3-02/AGR). C. Peña was awarded with a FPI fellowship by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.

42 Pags., 9 Tabls., 5 Figs. The definitive version is available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03783774, One of the main constraints of irrigated agriculture is off-siteNpollution due to export of nitrate in irrigation return flows (IRF). Models capable of simulating the growth of crops and the N loads in IRF as affected by irrigation and N fertilization may be valuable tools in watershed studies. The Agricultural Policy Environmental eXtender (APEX) model was used to assess bestmanagement practices for reducing off-siteN loads in the IRF of three Mediterranean irrigated watersheds (Akarsu in Turkey, La Violada in Spain and Sidi Rached in Algeria). The watersheds (ranging from 4013 to 10,971 ha) were monitored along three hydrological years to determine the volume of IRF and the NO3-N concentrations and loads in IRF. APEX was calibrated with the data of the first two years and validated with the last year's data. APEX adequately simulated crop evapotranspiration and the volume of IRF and N loads in the IRF (errors < 20%). Simulated annual values were in general more accurate than simulated monthly values. APEX predicted that improving irrigationmanagement (change of irrigation system and/or scheduling) will decrease N loads in IRF over current values by 45% (Akarsu), 40% (La Violada), and 8% (Sidi Rached). However, improved N fertilization only will reduce N loads in IRF by 17% (Akarsu) or below 5% (La Violada and Sidi Rached). Improving irrigationmanagement will increase IRF NO3-N concentrations by 19% in La Violada and will decrease or will remain the same in the other two watersheds. APEXsimulations identified the main soils (shallow and low water holding capacity soils) and crops (heavily fertilized or shallow-root crops) N polluters within the studied watersheds. Overall, APEX simulated that the improvement of irrigation performance was the bestmanagementstrategy to decrease off-siteNpollution while maintaining or increasing crop yields in the three studied Mediterranean watersheds., This study was supported by the European Commission research project (INCO-CT-2005-015031).

44 Pag., 5 Figs., 3 Tabl. The definitive version is available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03783774, Long-term analysis of hydrologic series in irrigated areas allows identifying the main water balance components, minimizing closing errors and assessing changes in the hydrologic regime. The main water inputs [irrigation (I) and precipitation (P)] and outputs [outflow (Q) and potential (ETc) crop evapotranspiration] in the 4000-ha La Violada irrigation district (VID) (Ebro River Basin, Spain) were measured or estimated from 1995 to 2008. A first-step, simplified water balance assuming steady state conditions (with error ɛ = I + P − Q − ETc) showed that inputs were much lower than outputs in all years (average ɛ = −577 mm yr−1 or −33% closing error). A second-step, improved water balance with the inclusion of other inputs (municipal waste waters, canal releases and lateral surface runoff) and the estimation of crop's actual evapotranspiration (ETa) through a daily soil water balance reduced the average closing error to −13%. Since errors were always higher during the irrigated periods, when canals are full of water, a third-step, final water balance considered canal seepage (CS) as an additional input. The change in water storage in the system (ΔW) was also included in this step. CS and ΔW were estimated through a monthly soil–aquifer water balance, showing that CS was a significant component in VID. With the inclusion of CS and ΔW in the water balance equation, the 1998–2008 annual closing errors were within ±10% of total water outputs. This long-term, sequential water balance analysis in VID was an appropriate approach to accurately identify and quantify the most important water balance components while minimizing water balance closing errors., This work was sponsored by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education project AGL2006-11860/AGR, the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) and the European Union project INCO CT-2005-015031.

25 Pag., 6 Tabl., 1 Fig. The definitive version is available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03783774, Irrigated agriculture is threatened by soil salinity in numerous arid and semiarid areas of the Mediterranean basin. The objective of this work was to quantify soil salinity through electromagnetic induction (EMI) techniques and relate it to the physical characteristics and irrigation management of four Mediterranean irrigation districts located in Morocco, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey. The volume and salinity of the main water inputs (irrigation and precipitation) and outputs (crop evapotranspiration and drainage) were measured or estimated in each district. Soil salinity (ECe) maps were obtained through electromagnetic induction surveys (ECa readings) and district-specific ECa–ECe calibrations. Gravimetric soil water content (WC) and soil saturation percentage (SP) were also measured in the soil calibration samples. The ECa–ECe calibration equations were highly significant (P < 0.001) in all districts. ECa was not significantly correlated (P > 0.1) with WC, and was only significantly correlated (P < 0.1) with soil texture (estimated by SP) in Spain. Hence, ECa mainly depended upon ECe, so that the maps developed could be used effectively to assess soil salinity and its spatial variability. The surface-weighted average ECe values were low to moderate, and ranked the districts in the order: Tunisia (3.4 dS m−1) > Morocco (2.2 dS m−1) > Spain (1.4 dS m−1) > Turkey (0.45 dS m−1). Soil salinity was mainly affected by irrigation water salinity and irrigation efficiency. Drainage water salinity at the exit of each district was mostly affected by soil salinity and irrigation efficiency, with values very high in Tunisia (9.0 dS m−1), high in Spain (4.6 dS m−1), moderate in Morocco (estimated at 2.6 dS m−1), and low in Turkey (1.4 dS m−1). Salt loads in drainage waters, calculated from their salinity (ECdw) and volume (Q), were highest in Tunisia (very high Q and very high ECdw), intermediate in Turkey (extremely high Q and low ECdw) and lowest in Spain (very low Q and high ECdw) (there were no Q data for Morocco). Reduction of these high drainage volumes through sound irrigation management would be the most efficient way to control the off-site salt-pollution caused by these Mediterranean irrigation districts., This study was supported by the European Commission research project INCO-CT-2005-015031.

32 Pag., 9 Fig., 5 Tabl. The definitive version is available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00221694, The identification of the different components in a water course is required to individualize and assess the actual contribution of irrigated agriculture to the pollution of the water course. This paper aimed at identifying and assessing the composition of the end-members in La Violada irrigation district (VID) and establishing a statistical procedure to reduce the sampling effort needed to establish drainage water quality. The quality of irrigation water, groundwater, and irrigated-land drainage water in VID was monitored during three hydrologic years to identify the components of flow in La Violada Gully, the natural exit course of VID. A network of sampling points in the secondary ditches and main drains of VID allowed identifying and separating those collecting irrigated-land drainage waters from those conveying high proportions of irrigation waters. Three end-member flows were identified in La Violada Gully during the irrigation season: (a) irrigation water arising from tail-waters, leakages and spills from the irrigation canals, very low in salts; (b) groundwater originating from the non-irrigated upper reaches of La Violada Gully watershed, high in Cl and Na+; and (c) VID drainage water, high in SO2 4 and Ca2+. The overall VID drainage water quality was accurately assessed through a simplified sampling scheme of only four sampling points that produced low errors of 0.1 dS/m for EC and 0.1 mmolc/L for Cl . The separation of La Violada Gully flow in these three components is essential for estimating the actual contribution of irrigation in VID to the salt and nitrogen loads in La Violada Gully., This work was funded by the Spanish Institute of Agricultural Research and Technology (Project INIA SC95-031) and the European Union (Project INCO CT-2005-015031). The Spanish Institute of Agricultural Research and Technology provided a fellowship for the first author.

Soil salinity is a major threat in irrigated agriculture because of its negative on-site (decreased productivity) and off-site (salinization of irrigation return flows) effects. The delineation of the spatial variability of soil salinity is best suited using non-invasive geophysical measurements of the apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa) using mobile GPS-based systems. Two simple and cost-effective Mobile Georeferenced Electromagnetic Sensors (MGES) developed in Aragón and Navarra (Spain) are described. These devices involve electromagnetic instruments towed by all terrain vehicles and combined with GPS units and data acquisition systems that collect both ECa readings and GPS coordinates. Two applications of the MGES aimed at delineating ECa maps for (1) selecting the most suitable crops in a 43-ha saline site (Hondo de Espartosa) and (2) correlating ECa with drainage water salinity to ascertain the salinity-source areas in a new 715 ha irrigated basin (Barranco de Lerma) were examined. These examples demonstrate the MGES surveying capacities for management of salt-affected agricultural areas. La salinidad del suelo es una importante amenaza para la agricultura de regadío debido a sus efectos negativos internos (descenso de la productividad) y externos (salinización de los flujos de retorno del riego). El procedimiento más adecuado para delinear la variabilidad espacial de la salinidad edáfica es mediante la medida geofísica de la conductividad eléctrica aparente del suelo (ECa) efectuada con sistemas móviles georreferenciados. En este trabajo se describen dos Sensores Electromagnéticos Móviles Georreferenciados (MGES) sencillos y económicos desarrollados en Aragón y Navarra (España). Estos equipos incluyen instrumentos electromagnéticos arrastrados por un vehículo todo terreno, combinados con una unidad de GPS y un sistema de adquisición de datos que recopila las lecturas de ECa y las coordenadas geográficas. Se presentan dos aplicaciones del MGES en las que se levantan mapas de ECa para (1) seleccionar los cultivos más apropiados en un regadío salino de 43 ha (Hondo de Espartosa) y (2) correlacionar la ECa con la salinidad de las aguas de drenaje para identificar las áreas-fuente mas importantes de salinidad en una nueva cuenca de regadío de 715 ha (Barranco de Lerma). Estos ejemplos demuestran las capacidades de análisis del MGES para el manejo de áreas agrícolas afectadas por salinidad.

10 Pag., 4 Tabl., 9 Fig., Salt loading in irrigation return flows contributes to the salinization of the receiving water bodies, particularly when originated in salt-affected areas as frequently found in the middle Ebro River basin (Spain). We determined the salt loading in La Violada Gully from the total dissolved solids (TDS) and flows (Q) during the 1995 to 1998 hydrological years. Since this gully collects flows from various sources, an end-member mixing analysis (EMMA) was performed to quantify the drainage flow from La Violada Irrigation District (VID). Three flow components were identified in La Violada Gully: drainage waters from VID (Qd); tail-waters from irrigation ditches, spill-over, and seepage from the Monegros Canal (Qo); and ground water inflows (Qg) originating in the dryland watershed. Gypsum in the soils of VID was the main source for salts in La Violada Gully (flow-weighted mean TDS = 1720 mg L−1, dominated by sulfate and calcium). The contribution of Qg to the total gully flow during the 1996 irrigation season was low (6.5% of the total flow). The 1995 to 1998 annual salt load average in La Violada Gully was 78 628 Mg, 71% of which was exported during the irrigation season. The 1995 to 1998 irrigation season salt load average in Qd was 43 015 Mg (77% of the total load). Thus, irrigated agriculture in VID was the main source of salt loading in this gully, with a yield of 11.1 Mg of salts per hectare of irrigated land for the irrigation season. Efficient irrigation systems and irrigation management practices that reduce Qd are key factors for controlling off-site salt pollution of these gypsum-rich irrigated areas., This study was funded by the Spanish Institute of Agricultural Research and Technology (INIA). A Fulbright Grant and the financial sponsorship of the Spanish Ministry of Education supported Daniel Isidoro.

9 Pags.- 6 Figs., Irrigated agriculture may negatively affect groundwater quality and increase off-site salt and nitrate contamination. Management alternatives aimed at reducing these potential problems were analysed in the 15498 ha CR-V Irrigation District (Spain) by monitoring 49 wells and modelling the hydrological regime in a representative well of the Miralbueno Aquifer. Groundwaters presented low to moderate electrical conductivity (EC) (mean = 0.89 dS/m) and high [NO3−] (mean = 94 mg/L). The groundwater depth (GWD) during the 2001 hydrological year responded to the annual cycles of precipitation and irrigation as well as to the secondary cycles derived from irrigation scheduling. GWD were consistently simulated by the groundwater BAS-A model. Model results indicate that an increase in irrigation efficiency and the pumping of groundwater for irrigation will decrease GWD and aquifer's discharge by 56–70%, depending on scenarios. These recommendations will save good-quality water in the reservoir, will be beneficially economical to farmers, and will minimize off-site salt and nitrogen contamination., his work was financed by the National Plan I + D and FEDER funds from the EU, Project 2FD1997-0547, with the collaboration of the Bardenas Irrigation District no. V. We thank Consejo Superior de Investigación y Desarrollo of the Diputación General de Aragón for awarding a fellowship to the senior author.

Nitrate contamination of surface waters has been linked to irrigated agriculture across the world. We determined the NO3–N loads in the drainage waters of two sprinkler-irrigated watersheds located in the Ebro River basin (Spain) and their relationship to irrigation and N management. Crop water requirements, irrigation, N fertilization, and the volume and NO3–N concentration of drainage waters were measured or estimated during two-year (Watershed A; 494 irrigated ha) and one-year (Watershed B; 470 irrigated ha) study periods. Maize (Zea mays L.) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) were grown in 40 to 60% and 15 to 33% of the irrigated areas, respectively. The seasonal irrigation performance index (IPI) ranged from 92 to 100%, indicating high-quality management of irrigation. However, the IPI varied among fields and overirrigation occurred in 17 to 44% of the area. Soil and maize stalk nitrate contents measured at harvest indicated that N fertilizer rates could be decreased. Drainage flows were 68 mm yr-1 in Watershed A and 194 mm yr-1 in Watershed B. Drainage NO3–N concentrations were independent of drainage flows and similar in the irrigated and nonirrigated periods (average: 23–29 mg L-1). Drainage flows determined the exported mass of NO3–N, which varied from 18 (Watershed A) to 49 (Watershed B) kg ha-1 yr-1, representing 8 (Watershed A) and 22% (Watershed B) of the applied fertilizer plus manure N. High-quality irrigation management coupled to the split application of N through the sprinkler systems allowed a reasonable compromise between profitability and reduced N pollution in irrigation return flows., This research was supported by the government of Aragón (DGA, Spain).

24 Pags.- 5 Tabls.- 4 Figs. The definitive version is available at: http://link.springer.com/journal/271, Deficit irrigation (DI) strategies using moderately saline waters save water, but may enhance soil salinization. Based on data gathered during years 2007–2012 in three drip-irrigated grapevine, peach, and nectarine crops subjected to several irrigation and soil-mulching treatments, we assessed trends in root-zone soil salinity [saturation extract electrical conductivity (ECe)], related the changes in soil salinity (ΔECe) to field-wide leaching fraction (LF), evaluated management strategies for soil salinity control, and examined the sustainability of DI strategies under present and expected climate change (CC) scenarios in the Middle Ebro River Basin (ERB, Spain). ECe increased in 82 % of the irrigation seasons and decreased in 75 % of the non-irrigation seasons examined. Soil salinization trends were not apparent during the study years due to these annual salt accumulation–salt leaching cycles. ECe increases were higher in the more severe DI treatments and in the geotextile-mulched soil and lower in the full and less severe irrigation treatments and in the organic-mulched soil. As expected, ΔECe and LF were linearly and negatively correlated (P < 0.01), indicating that soil salinization increased with decreasing LF. These linear relationships provided a way to evaluate best management strategies (increased irrigation, rainfall harvesting, and soil mulching) for soil salinity control. These strategies decreased soil salinization, but did not guarantee the sustainability of severe DIs in the study area. The application of these relationships to the CC precipitation and crop evapotranspiration projections in the ERB shows that the examined DI strategies will be unsustainable due to soil salinization., This work was financed by the CSD2006-00067 project (CONSOLIDER-INGENIO 2010).

An irrigation system was developed for the establishment of salinity gradients in field experiments that are aimed at obtaining salinity-yield response functions of crops. The drip-injection irrigation system (DIS) consists of a parallel pump system (a centrifugal pump for fresh water and an injection pump for saline water) and a conventional drip irrigation system composed of various irrigation sectors. The number of emitters installed in each irrigation sector determines the discharge of the centrifugal pump that blends with the fixed discharge of the injection pump. So, for the rest of fixed variables, the number of emitters (N) installed in a given irrigation sector determines the salinity of the irrigation water (ECiw): , with a measured coefficient of determination of 99%. The DIS was validated in an experiment where the salinity-yield response functions of ten barley cultivars were obtained using nine ECiw salinity treatments, with two replications per treatment. The DIS proved to be accurate and robust in that: (i) the measured ECiw gradient was similar to the target ECiw gradient (r positively correlated at P < 0.0001); (ii) the soil salinity (ECe) horizontal and vertical (0–50 cm depth) uniformities within each salinity treatment were low (average coefficient of variation [CV] of the pooled salinity treatments equal to 16–22% for the horizontal soil salinity and equal to 10% for the vertical soil salinity) and the temporal variability of soil salinity was low to moderate (average CV of the pooled salinity treatments equal to 18% during the studied period); and (iii) ECiw and ECe were positively correlated (P < 0.001). We concluded that the DIS is an excellent, low cost irrigation system for conducting field crop salt tolerance evaluations.